Civilopedia Text

Units

Settler

Building a Settler: A city that builds a settler loses two citizens from its population.

Founding Cities: Settlers are used primarily to found new cities. Move the settler to the desired city site, and, when the settler is active in that square, press B.

Joining a City: A settler may also be used to increase the population of an existing city; when the settler is active on a city, click the "Join City" button. The settler disappears and the city's population gains two citizens.

When cities grew to a size where the resources were insufficient to adequately insure a decent standard of living for the populace, adventurous groups of citizens set out on their own in search of a place to build a new city. Once a suitable site was found, the settlers would build their new homes, and develop the land surrounding the city. Eventually the whole process repeated, and the new city would send out settlers of its own. This process allowed civilizations to grow throughout history, from the empires of the ancient world to the discovery and settlement of the New World.

Worker

Building a Worker: A city that builds a worker loses one citizen from its population.

Worker Jobs: Workers can improve the countryside to make it more productive. The efficiency of a worker (how quickly it works) depends upon its government type.

Joining a City: A worker may also be used to increase the population of an existing city; when the worker is active on a city, click the "Join City" button. The worker disappears and the city's population gains one citizen.

Note that workers may be captured and used by rival civilizations.

In primitive, hunter-gatherer cultures, there was no division of labor. But every civilization since has had a worker "class," devoted to the production of goods and the unskilled tasks necessary for the maintenance of society. In most early societies, slaves and peasants fulfilled this role. With the coming of the Middle Ages, the more specialized workers organized themselves into craft guilds. The technological advances of the Industrial Age gave rise to a new class of semi-skilled workers: wage laborers, most of which worked in factories and offices. Continuing trends in the specialization and professionalism of labor during the late 20th century has not altered the fact, however, that civilization still rests upon the shoulders of those who till the fields and build the roads.

Scout

Scouts are unarmed, non-combat units with two movement points. They are good at exploring the countryside.

Smart application of a nation's military resources often means identifying the points that would benefit from it the most. The use of lightly armed but fleet of foot scouts to survey the situation can permit this effective application of might.

Available to expanionist civs only. One at the onset of the game and can be built thereafter.

Explorer

Explorers are unarmed, non-combat units that treat all terrain as if it were a road. This makes them very adept at exploring the wilderness.

Throughout history there are those whose thirst for adventure led them from the safe confines of civilized lands. These explorers, frequently funded by government stipends, would then journey into the unknown, charting their progress all the way. These expeditions, and the maps they helped create, became blueprints for the conquest and domestication of the once uncharted regions of the world.

Warrior

The warrior is late Stone Age infantry, armed with stone axes and clubs.

The earliest military forces were simply the citizens of the city, armed with whatever implements they could use as weapons. Although a militia made up of warriors was inexpensive, they were no match for organized armies. Warriors were usually used as stopgap measures while waiting for superior units to be trained, or to defend a city that had been temporarily cut off from military support. In a crisis situation, an assembly of warriors is better than no defense at all.

Jaguar_Warrior

The Aztec Jaguar Warrior is a dangerous military unit. It's as strong as normal warriors, but moves twice as fast.

The most feared predator of their Mexican empire, the Aztecs embraced the wild jaguar as a totem for their warrior elite. These soldiers were ferocious fighters, often emerging victorious even when badly outnumbered.

Archer

Archers are late Stone Age warriors armed with sinew bows and flint-tipped arrows.

The bow and arrow, invented in prehistoric times, greatly improved the hunting skills of early man, allowing him to kill his targets from a distance. The bow was eventually adapted for use in battle, and was first used by Egyptian, Persian, and Assyrian armies as early as 5000 BC. The range provided by the bow allowed small forces of archers to rout armies of superior number armed only with hand-to-hand weapons. Archers were often used to soften enemy resistance prior to sending in mounted and skirmishing forces. Refinements in design and construction allowed the bow to remain an effective weapon until firearms finally replaced it in the 1500s.

Longbowman

Longbowmen are excellent attackers in the middle ages.

Longbowmen were highly skilled archers capable of firing up to six arrows a minute over long distances into massed enemy formations. Using bows constructed from a type of wood called Yew, they used arrows specifically designed to penetrate chainmail armor -- even plate if close enough. Frequently they would comprise approximately four-fifths of an army, and their devastating attacks helped to reverse the dominance of knights in warfare. Only lightly-armored, they enjoyed a great mobility advantage should their opponents survive their barrages.

Once gunpowder began to find applications in the military, their use began to wane. Guns allowed foot soldiers the same effectiveness against knights, but without the decades of training required to be proficient with the longbow.

Bowman

Babylonian bowmen are excellent marksmen of the ancient era.

The Babylonians utilized a number of different archer types, typically categorized by the amount of armor they wore. These units fulfilled a number of useful roles in the conquest-focused armies of the time, including sophisticated combined-arms tactics. Their composite bows, when massed in sufficient numbers, could assist chariots and other horse units in disrupting lines and formations. When used in sieges, they would keep the ramparts clear of soldiers so that the infantry could safely close and scale the city walls. Sometimes these skilled warriors enjoyed the benefit of a shield carrier. These wicker, curved shields would help protect the bowman from attacks coming from the front and above.

Spearman

Spearmen are the first and best defensive units of the Bronze Age.

Though early man probably employed spears of fire-hardened wood, spearheads of knapped stone were used long before the emergence of any distinction between hunting and military weapons. Bronze spearheads closely followed the development of alloys hard enough to keep a cutting edge and represented, with the war ax, the earliest significant military application of bronze. Spearheads were also among the earliest militarily significant applications of iron, no doubt because existing patterns could be directly extrapolated from bronze to iron. Though the hafting is quite different, bronze Sumerian spearheads of the 3rd millennium BC differ only marginally in shape from the leaf-shaped spearheads of classical Greece. The spears of antiquity were relatively short, commonly less than the height of the warrior, and typically were wielded with one hand. As defensive armor and other weapons of shock combat (notably the sword and mounted troops) improved, spear shafts were made longer and the use of spearmen became increasingly specialized. The Greek hoplite's spear was about nine feet long; the Macedonian sarissa was twice that length in the period of Alexander's conquests. The Middle Ages would see the evolution of the spear into the pike and halberd.

Pikeman

The pikeman is an excellent defender.

A city must have iron in its Strategic Resource box to build a pikeman.

The growing deployment of knights on the battlefield demanded that foot soldiers develop new means of fighting that would lessen their vulnerability to mounted opponents. One of the best ways to do this was to lengthen the reach of the infantrymen by arming them with long, sturdy spears known as pikes. Massed infantry armed with pikes -- particularly in conjunction with archers -- managed to even the battlefield odds. Armies equipped in this manner were able to hold their own until the invention of gunpowder made archers, pikemen, and knights a thing of the past.

Hoplite

Perhaps the best defender in the ancient era, the Greek Hoplite can dominate the Bronze Age world.

Hoplites were well-trained citizen-soldiers of ancient Greece. Armed with spears and durable armor, they fulfilled the heavy infantry role in most engagements.

Hoplites will always be associated with the phalanx unit formation. This tactic involved tightly packed groupings of eight or 16 rows of soldiers, who, against other citizen-soldiers, move and attack in unison scattering less densely organized enemy forces. This tactic worked well, but broke down when facing more mobile and well-trained professional soldiers. The Roman legions victory over the Macedonian phalanx at Pydna in 168 BC effectively ended the Hoplite's battlefield usefulness.

Impi

The Zulu Impi is perhaps the first "mechanized infantry"... they are fast defenders that will withdraw from combat if they are losing (unless fighting another fast unit).

Upon coming to power, one of Shaka's first acts was to reorganize the Zulu army. Shaka first rearmed his men with long-bladed, short-hafted stabbing assegais, which forced them to fight at close quarters. He then instituted a regimental system based on age groups, quartered at separate kraals (villages) and distinguished by uniform markings on shields, headdress and ornaments. And he developed standard tactics, which the Zulu used in every battle thereafter. Each impi was divided into four groups. The strongest, termed the "chest," closed with the enemy to pin him down, while two "horns" raced out to encircle and attack the foe from behind. A reserve, known as the "loins," was seated nearby, with its back to the battle so as not to become unduly excited, and could be sent to reinforce any part of the ring if the enemy threatened to break out. Besides their prowess in battle, the Zulu warriors could cover tremendous distances, an impi consistently covered 50 miles a day, living off grain and cattle requisitioned from the kraals it passed and accompanied by young boys who carried the warriors' sleeping mats and cooking pots.

Enkidu_Warrior

The Sumerian Enkidu Warrior is a very tough early defensive unit.

The Enkidu Warrior is named for Enkidu, a near-savage man created by the Sumerian god Anu to accompany and aid Gilgamesh on his quest for immortality. Enkidu was a fierce warrior and prophet, and the Sumerian armies strove to emulate his ferocity in battle and his iron loyalty to the King.

Swiss_Mercenary

The Dutch Swiss Mercenary is an excellent defender that boasts an even better defense strength than the formidable pikeman.

A city must have iron in its Strategic Resource box to build a Swiss Mercenary.

Mercenaries first came to prominence in Europe in the 14th century, when soldiers from the Hundred Years' War preferred to continue fighting for a living rather than learn peacetime trades. Swiss soldiers in particular enjoyed an especially high reputation for loyalty and professionalism, and several European nations incorporated Swiss mercenary regiments into their armies. The Netherlands, in particular, employed huge numbers of mercenaries, since the strength of the Dutch nation was commerce and wealth. This allowed Dutch princes and stadtholders to pay mercenaries well and regularly, which led to extremely effective fighters. The most famous assignment of Swiss mercenaries is the personal safety of the Pope; a special unit of Swiss soldiers, the Swiss Guard, has pledged to protect the Pope and the Vatican for the last 500 years.

Chasquis_Scout

The Incan Chasqui Scout is a scout unit that replaces the basic scout for the Inca. He has a modest attack and defensive capability. He is also very fast and ignores movement costs for both hills and mountains.

The Chasqui scout system was the Incan equivalent to the Pony Express. Fast, agile, and capable of running long distances, Chasqui scouts carried memorized messages along the Imperial road systems of the Andes Mountains. Couriers donned with distinctly white feathered headdresses, Chasquis would memorize information, carry it to other scouts waiting along the relay system, and then run along with them until they memorized the message, and so on until the message was delivered. In this way, a message could travel over hundreds of miles within a few short days.

Chasqui scouts were also used by the Incan army on campaign, to retrieve and deliver messages between the moving columns.

Javelin_Thrower

The Mayan Javelin Thrower hurls javelins in rapid succession, using the atl-atl. He is strong on both the attack and on the defense. The Javelin Thrower also possesses the ability to "enslave". When the javelin thrower wins a battle, there is a 1/3 chance that the defeated unit will be “enslaved” and immediately turned into a Worker, which is then the property of the Maya.

The Mayan army was comprised of warriors armed with a variety of weapons: lances, clubs, daggers, and even tridents. When the Aztecs introduced them to the atl-atl (a tool used to extend the throwing range and penetration strength of a javelin) in the 9th century, the javelin thrower became a staple in the Mayan warrior class. Capable of launching spears in rapid succession, the javelin thrower is a powerful force on the battlefield.

The primary purpose of war for the Mayans was not to kill the enemy, but to enslave him. In particular, the capture of the enemy’s leader. He and his direct subordinates were carried triumphantly to the captors’ city, where they were summarily sacrificed to the gods. The rest of the vanquished army was enslaved. Therefore, the Javelin Thrower has the ability to "enslave".

Berserk

The Berserk replaces Longbowmen for the Viking civilization. In addition to being formidable foot soldiers, berserkers are one of the first available amphibious units in the game, which allows them to attack enemy units or structures directly from within sea-based transport vessels.

In the pagan era, before Scandinavia was converted to Christianity, the berserkir warriors were looked upon as possessing supernatural powers attributed to the Viking's chief god, Odin and a belief in lycanthropy. These warriors were known to rush into battle without armor, as mad as wolves, and as strong as wild boars. This infamous berserkir frenzy reportedly allowed them to kill men in single blows with great bearded axes and shrug off blows from fire and iron alike. Today it is believed that these frenzies were the result of epileptic attacks.

Libyan_Mercenary

Numidian Mercenaries replace spearmen as the first and best defensive units of the Bronze Age for the Carthaginians. They replace the spearman and have an increased attack ability.

Carthage maintained a monopoly of trade from the 6th to 3rd century BC by sinking all intruders and exacting recognition of its position from neighboring Mediterranean states. This wealth was attested by the vast mercenary armies it was able to maintain with a mintage of gold coins far exceeding that known for any other advanced state of its time. While frequently led by Carthaginian soldiers, the majority of the Carthaginian armies was comprised of mercenaries. Celts and Iberians contributed large numbers of infantry and horsemen, but Numidian Infantry dominated their ranks. These Numidian mercenaries were equipped with loot from assorted engagements against Rome, and were generally regarded as capable soldiers and spearmen.

Leader

Leaders can arise when an elite unit wins a battle or as the result of scientific research. Depending on the type of leader, it can be used either to create an army or to hurry production of certain items in a city. When the leader does either of these things it disappears.

Throughout history special individuals have come to prominence on the world stage. Each embodied in some way the ideals and dreams of their people, causing legions to follow their lead. These great leaders of mankind were capable of feats that created benefits well beyond what they could achieve by themselves. On the battlefield, they inspired their troops to conquer their fear and accomplish goals thought impossible. Within civilian society, these figures corralled diverse goals and opinions into a powerful, unified focus. Once organized, these social entities became capable of pushing their society steadily into the bright future they all hoped to visit.

Army

An Army is a group of ordinary units that move and fight together. To form an army, you must build the Army unit and then 'load' other units into it. You can load up to three units, though the Pentagon increases this limit to four, if you have built it.

Building an Army
Armies can be built in cities that have the Military Academy or a Leader in them. But you must have at least four cities for every army you create.

In Battle
An army uses one, some, or all its internal units to fight a battle, depending upon the course of the fight.

Spotting
An army can "see" up to two squares away, due to its intrinsic scouts.

Armies are the military forces of a nation, commissioned to defend the security of their country, as well as to protect its interests across the world. Complex organizations, armies are capable of supporting extended campaigns in lands far from home. They are frequently large groups of soldiers, though armies can be comprised of diverse combat specialties. Since these organs wield considerable force, their integration and power within a nation's ruling body is heavily scrutinized.

IRON-AGE UNITS

Swordsman

The swordsman is the first effective unit of the Iron Age.

A city must have iron in its Strategic Resource box to build a swordsman.

The advantages of a long, sharp blade in battle had to await advanced smelting and casting technologies before they could be realized. By about 1500 BC the war ax had evolved into the sickle sword, a bronze sword with a curved, concave blade and a straight, thickened handle. Bronze swords with straight blades more than three feet long have been found in Greek grave sites; however, because this length exceeded the tensile strength of bronze, these swords were not practical. As a serious military weapon, the sword had to await the development of ironworking, and the first true swords date from about 1200 BC. Swords in antiquity and classical times tended to be relatively short, at first because they were made of bronze and later because they were rarely called upon to penetrate armor. The blade of the classic Roman stabbing sword, the gladius, was only some two feet long, though in the twilight years of the empire the gladius gave way to the spatha, the long slashing sword of the barbarians and forerunner of the great broadswords of medieval Europe.

Medieval_Infantry

Typically acting as the standard foot-soldiers of the Middle Ages, Medieval Infantry are skilled warriors who are suitable for dispatching ancient-era units and civilizations.

A city must have iron in its Strategic Resource box to build medieval infantry.

Troops who fight on foot, even though transported to the battlefield by horses, ships, aircraft, tanks and other motorized vehicles, skis, or other means are classified as Infantry. This term applies equally to troops armed with weapons such as the spear, sword, and mace in ancient and medieval times. As with most foot-soldiers, the objective of the Medieval Infantry was to seize and hold territory, often in an attempt to occupy enemy territory. Despite the temporary dominance of cavalry in the feudal and middle ages, infantry has been the largest single element in Western armies since ancient times.

Legionary

The Roman Legionary is a highly-skilled swordsman good in both offense and defense.

A city must have iron in its Strategic Resource box to build a legionary.

The Roman Legions, created during the early wars of the Republic and tested during the three Punic Wars against Carthage, were the fighting force that conquered and held the Roman Empire together for five centuries. Each legion was composed of 6000 men, divided into 60 smaller groups known as centuries. Nearly unstoppable on the attack, the legion was relatively weak on defense. The legion's demise as a military unit was accelerated by the destruction of Emperor Valens' army by gothic knights in the fourth century.

Immortals

The Persian Immortals are highly-trained and skilled swordsmen that are excellent attackers in the ancient era.

A Persian city must have iron in its Strategic Resource box to build Immortals.

The Immortals were a strong corps of heavy infantry deployed by the Persian Empire in the fifth century BC. Gifted soldiers, they drew their moniker from the fact that regardless of the casualties sustained in battle, the unit was restored to full strength, no matter the cost. Equipped with bow and spear, the front rank would advance upon the enemy while rear ranks rained arrows to ease the assault.

Samurai

Japanese Samurai, are dedicated unmounted warriors armed with excellent weapons.

A city must have iron in its Strategic Resource box to build a Samurai.

Similar to the European knights, Japanese samurai were landowners who volunteered military service in exchange for a larger warlord's protection. Their handsome lacquer armor gave them durable protection on the battlefield. The warrior code of "Bushido" placed exacting restrictions on their behavior, both on the field of battle and off. One such tenet was that samurai of opposing forces must seek each other out and battle one on one. While their armor provided some safety from early gunpowder weapons, soon more advanced weaponry and skilled marksmen relegated them to administrative and leadership roles. The samurai caste was abolished in 1868.

Crusader

Crusaders are devout and dangerous medieval fighters with a mission. Crusaders also have a special ability that allows them to also build fortresses.

The Knights Templar Great Wonder, unless rendered obsolete, automatically produces a Crusader every five turns.

Years of fighting in the Holy Land led to the development of a new class of Christian knight -- one accustomed to harsh conditions and constant battle against opponents using unfamiliar and "un-Christian" tactics. Crusader knights fought both mounted and on foot, and brought their experience and learned ruthlessness and aggression back to Europe when the Crusades ended -- as in the case of the Teutonic Knights, who offered to defend Poland from invaders and ended up taking charge of a big chunk of the kingdom they promised to defend. Often originating in apparently benign orders (such as the Hospitallers, who, true to their name, ran hospitals all over Europe), crusaders were often motivated by ambition and the desire to rule their own kingdoms in the Near East.

Gallic_Swordsman

A Celt city must have iron in its Strategic Resource to build a Gallic Swordsman. They replace the swordsman and are much faster.

While the bulk of a Celtic army would typically consist of poorly armored spearmen, it was the warrior nobles who wielded swords that were the most feared. These Gallic Swordsmen were wealthier than their peers, and could afford to equip themselves not only with their slashing and stabbing sword, but also with a helmet and shield. They often charged into battle bare-chested or completely naked, occasionally wearing vividly patterned pants or cloaks. Similar to the Viking Berserker, Gallic Swordsman began their battles by viciously taunting their enemies, followed by a mad rush against enemy lines. Celtic warriors were also known to serve as mercenaries to numerous armies of the classical period. The best-known instance of this is when Celtic mercenaries joined Hannibal in his invasion of Italy during the 2nd Punic War, contributing to victories against Rome.

MOUNTED UNITS

Cavalry

Fast and well-organized, Cavalry packs a huge offensive punch but will withdraw if losing (unless fighting another fast unit).

A city must have both horses and saltpeter in its Strategic Resource box to build cavalry.

Cavalry is composed of soldiers trained to fight on horseback. Because of their speed, cavalry units were often used for reconnaissance missions and hit-and-run raids on enemy installations and troops. Although warriors fighting from horseback with a variety of weapons date back to ancient Egypt, horse-mounted cavalry as we generally think of it today actually began in the late 1700s. Under Napoleon, the cavalry became an elite force, frequently deployed simultaneously with foot soldiers to mask the movements of the main battle force. Cavalry were used extensively in the American Civil War, and in other conflicts throughout the mid to late 19th century. When the repeating rifle replaced earlier single-shot firearms, horse-mounted troops became easy targets for infantrymen. The South African War, from 1899 to 1902, was the last major conflict where cavalry played an important role. Today, the roles once performed by horse-mounted cavalry have been assumed by troops utilizing armored assault vehicles and aircraft.

Chariot

The first wheeled unit you can build, chariots move fast and withdraw from combat if losing the battle (unless fighting another fast unit). Being wheeled, chariots may not enter mountain, volcano, or marsh terrain unless following a road.

A city must have horses in its Strategic Resource box to build chariots.

The chariot was the first true fighting vehicle. Ancient armies used it to transport archers and other troops to the battlefield, where they would disembark and fight. The Assyrians, whose archers and spearmen fought from inside the chariot itself, turned the vehicle into a fearsome offensive weapon. Few enemies were able to withstand an onslaught of Assyrian chariots. This devastating form of attack was soon adopted by many of the Assyrians' enemies, who used the chariot against them with good effect.

Cossack

The Russian special unit, Cossacks take the place of cavalry. The Cossack is a fast moving unit that can attack multiple times in a single turn and will withdraw from combat if losing the fight (unless fighting another fast unit, of course).

A Russian city must have both horses and saltpeter in its Strategic Resource box to build cossacks.

Skilled horsemen dwelling in the northern steppes of the Black and Caspian Sea regions, the Cossack hosts had a tradition of fierce independence and, after decades of conflict, finally received privileges from the Russian government in return for military services. In the 16th century there were six major Cossack hosts: the Don, the Greben (in Caucasia), the Yaik (along the Ural River), the Volga, the Dnieper and the Zaporozhian (west of the Dnieper). Under the Russian umbrella, the Cossacks expanded eastward from their settlements in the Don and were early colonizers of Siberia. From the 18th through the 20th centuries, the Czars used Cossacks extensively to suppress revolutionary activities and conduct foreign wars. During the Russian Civil War (1918-20), the Cossacks in southern Russia formed the core of the White armies there and suffered extensively. Under Soviet rule, the Cossack communities ceased to function as distinctive entities.

Horseman

The first mounted unit you can build, horsemen move fast and will withdraw from combat if losing (unless fighting another fast unit).

A city must have horses in its Strategic Resource box to build a horseman.

The necessity for speed and mobility in times of war was recognized even in ancient times. The infantrymen of some ancient armies would ride horses to get from one engagement to another, dismounting to fight when they reached the battlefield. Because of their speed, horsemen could also be used as scouts to pinpoint enemy positions. In the second century BC, the Chinese invention of the stirrup allowed this concept of mobility to go one step further. Stirrups provided the stability and leverage necessary to allow soldiers to fight from horseback, leading to the earliest examples of mounted combat units. Continuing developments in arms and armor eventually led to knights, dragoons, and finally to the advanced cavalry of the 18th and 19th century.

Knight

Knights are fast and powerful. They are the first armored unit, and good at attack and defense. Knights will withdraw from combat if they are losing (unless fighting another fast unit).

A city must have both iron and horses in its Strategic Resource box to build knights.

Knights were heavily armored, mounted men-at-arms found primarily in medieval Europe. Like the samurai of ancient Japan, knights followed a strict code that covered their behavior both in battle and in their personal pursuits. Fighting astride powerful horses, armored knights had a distinct advantage over enemies on foot and remained the dominant force on the battlefield when battles were fought primarily hand-to-hand. Occasionally, brilliant infantry tactics allowed knights to be outmaneuvered, but it wasn't until the development of gunpowder that knights were rendered obsolete.

War_Elephant

Indian War Elephants are powerful offensive units, and, like all fast units, will withdraw from battle if they are losing the conflict. But when engaged with other fast units, they do not withdraw.
Only India can build war elephants instead of knights.

The War Elephant receives an additional Hit Point on its Health Bar.

The war elephant was first used in India and was known to the Persians by the 4th Century BC. Using war elephants, Candra Gupta defeated Alexander's successor Seleucus and established the Mauryan Empire. Though Carthage's African war elephants accomplished little subsequently, their presence in Hannibal's army during his transit of the Alps into the heart of Rome in 218 BC established their reputation as a fearsome weapon. The elephant's tactical importance apparently stemmed in large part from its willingness to charge both foot soldiers and cavalry and from the panic that it inspired. Although used in Indian military forces until the 20th Century, as with so many traditional weapons, the utility of elephants in war ended with the widespread use of gunpowder.

Mounted_Warrior

Iroquois Mounted Warriors take the place of horsemen. They move quickly and will withdraw from combat if they are losing (unless fighting another fast unit).
A city must have horses in its Strategic Resource box to build a mounted warrior.

Around the year 1600 AD, Spanish horses were introduced into the Americas and spread northward from the region of New Mexico, quickly covering almost the entire Plains and reaching the edges of the Eastern Woodlands by 1750. Horses revolutionized the hunting of game for the North American natives, making it much more profitable and allowing ever larger populations to move beyond subsistence. Although the Iroquois and other Eastern tribes did not use the horse in warfare as extensively as did the Plains Indians, nevertheless mounted warriors served as scouts and couriers during times of war. By the time of the American Revolution and subsequent destruction of the Confederacy, many of the chiefs of the Six Nations themselves rode into combat.

Rider

Chinese riders move quickly and will withdraw from combat if they are losing (unless fighting another fast unit).
A Chinese city must have horses and iron in its Strategic Resource box to build a Rider.

The age of mounted combat has generally been viewed from a European perspective, since it was there that infantry was overthrown and that the greatest and most far-reaching changes in cavalry tactics occurred. But it was by no means an exclusively European phenomenon; indeed, the mounted warrior's tactical supremacy was less complete in western Europe than in the vast Asiatic steppes that bordered China. Evidence from the region suggests that horses were first mounted about 4000 BC, but their role in warfare was trivial until the Han dynasty. The fame of the large Parthian warhorses reached the Chinese imperial court and led the emperor Han Wu Ti to send an expedition westward as far as Fergana to bring back specimens of the new breed in 101 BC. These were mated with the sturdy Mongolian horses, and for the next several centuries the Chinese emperors employed both horse archers and armored horsemen to guard the borders against barbarian incursions and the vital Silk Road caravans from raiders. Ironically, the invading Mongols would eventually turn these against Chinese rulers themselves.

War_Chariot

Egyptian War Chariots take the place of normal chariots. They move quickly and will withdraw from combat if they are losing (unless fighting another fast unit). War Chariots are wheeled, thus they may not enter mountain, volcano, jungle or marsh terrain unless following a road.

A city must have horses in its Strategic Resource box to build a war chariot.

The chariot was the earliest means of transportation in combat other than man's own powers of locomotion. The earliest known chariots, shown in Sumerian depictions from about 2500 BC, were not true chariots but four-wheeled carts with solid wooden wheels, heavy and cumbersome and lacking a pivoting front axle. The Hyksos apparently introduced the Assyrian chariot into Egypt shortly thereafter, where it was perfected for transportation and warfare. Within 500 years, Egyptian, Hittite and Palestinian chariots were extraordinarily light and maneuverable vehicles, the wheels and tires in particular exhibiting great sophistication in design and fabrication. Egyptian war chariots were drawn by either two or three horses, which were harnessed by means of chest girths secured by a pole and a yoke. The decline of the war chariot by the end of the 2nd millennium BC was probably related to the spread of iron weaponry, but it was surely related also to the breeding of horses with sufficient strength and stamina to carry an armed man into battle. Armed horsemen replaced the chariot in most Mediterranean civilizations. The use of chariots in war lingered in areas of slower technological advance, but in classical Egypt they were retained mainly for ceremonial functions.

Three_Man_Chariot

Hittite Three-Man Chariots take the place of normal chariots. They move quickly and will withdraw from combat if they are losing (unless fighting another fast unit). Like other chariot units, they are wheeled and may not enter mountain, volcano, jungle or marsh terrain unless following a road.

A city must have horses in its Strategic Resource box to build a three-man chariot.

The Hittites were perhaps most famous for waging fast, deadly warfare with their powerful heavy war chariots. The Three-Man Chariot was an improvement over other contemporary chariots in close combat, because it sacrificed speed for stability and "elbow room" with which to fight. At the battle of Kadesh, the Hittites used three-man chariots to closely engage the Egyptian forces; this almost routed the entire Egyptian host.

Hussar

Austrian Hussars move quickly and will withdraw from combat if they are losing (unless fighting another fast unit).
An Austrian city must have horses and saltpeter in its Strategic Resource box to build a Hussar.

Light cavalry has been used in warfare since the domestication of horses, but in eastern Europe, Hungarian and Croat scouts earned a reputation for being elite scouts and deadly raiders. Hussars were the result of other European nations' attempts to duplicate this sort of unit. Hussar uniforms are elaborate and dramatically colored, and becoming a hussar is often a great honor or awarded to those of noble birth. They were typically armed with straight cavalry swords, although towards the end of the 18th century hussars often carried pistols as well.

Ancient_Cavalry

Ancient Cavalry represents highly trained mounted men, and thus receives an additional Hit Point on its Health Bar. Like other fast units, Ancient Cavalry move quickly and will withdraw from combat if they are losing (unless fighting another fast unit).

The Statue of Zeus Great Wonder, unless rendered obsolete, automatically produces an Ancient Cavalry unit every five turns.

Given sufficient training and motivation, as well as better weapons and heavier armor, mounted troops can become accomplished cavalry. By the time of Alexander the Great, both the Persians and Macedonians were fielding large bodies of heavily-armed and armored cavalry. Cavalrymen of this time typically carried heavy spears, and some had round shields. Alexander, noting the success of barbarian cavalry, introduced mounted bowmen and javelineers into his ranks. The Athenians, in fact, were known to employ Scythian mercenaries as mounted archers.

Keshik

A Mongol city must have horses in its Strategic Resource to build a Keshik. They replace the knight and can cross mountains and hills as if they were grasslands.

The skill of a Mongol on horseback was notoriously keen. Having been taught to ride on horseback from the age of three, and by five given bow and arrows to use from horseback for hunting and war, it was a natural way for the Mongols to conduct war. The Mongol's harsh, nomadic lifestyle had prepared them well for the rigors of war; they often thrived in conditions that would be considered intolerable by any other military of its time. When the need arose Mongol horsemen could last up to ten days at a time without cooking food, during which they would sustain themselves by drinking the blood and milk of their horses.

Conquistador

A Spanish city must have horses in its Strategic Resource to build a Conquistador. They replace the explorers and are fast, military scouts that treat all terrain as if it were a road.

Following Columbus, a Spanish military group known as Los Conquistadores, 'The Conquerors', were directed by Hernan Cortes to the New World with the sole purpose of seeking out new frontiers and riches in the unknown. The Conquistadores undertook their expeditions in the vast landmasses of the Americas at their own expense, risking their lives without aid from the Spanish royalty. Horses adorned with many bells enabled the Conquistadores to launch indomitable offenses against the American Indian natives who had never seen a horse before the arrival of the Conquistadores. Spanish-Conquistador conquests included campaigns in Guatemala, Peru, Cuzco, Columbia, Chile, the Bay of Honduras, and the Pacific Coastal regions.

Sipahi

An Ottoman city must have horses and saltpeter in its Strategic Resource to build a Sipahi. They replace cavalry and are very strong offensive units.

During the 15th century and beyond the Ottomans imported expertise in firearms and gunpowder. A form of Turkish heavy cavalry, known as Sipahi, became the predominating military unit utilized by the Ottoman Empire. The earliest variations of these soldiers were well-armored men on well-armored horses, who typically used a mace as their primary weapon. During the 17th century the Sipahi replaced their archaic weaponry with sabers and pistols, establishing them as a fearsome presence on the battlefield. While European infantry were more than a match for the standard Ottoman infantry, the Sipahi were far superior to any medieval knights.

Ansar_Warrior

An Arab city must have horses and iron in its Strategic Resource to build a Ansar Warrior. They replace the knight and are much faster.

While early Muslim forces consisted of very few soldiers, it's understood that they retained higher morale and mobility than their enemies, as well as the luxury to retreat into the desert where they alone knew the location of water and grazing land. The one military unit that was present in nearly all of the Arabic expansion of the 7th to 9th centuries was the Ansar Warrior. Directly translated as "Helper of Muhammad", these warriors participated as infantry, but most commonly rode on horseback. The quality of the Arabian horses quickly led to these soldiers dominating the battlefield, making ample use of their array of weaponry, which consisted of javelins, a sword, as well as bow and arrows.

GUNPOWDER FOOT UNITS

Musketman

The first gunpowder unit, musketmen are powerful defenders.

A city must have saltpeter in its Strategic Resource box to build a musketman.

One of the most important developments in the history of warfare was the invention of firearms. Originally developed in the 14th century, firearms evolved quickly, and by the late 17th century flintlock muskets had become commonplace in battle. Musketeers, who were relatively inexpensive to equip and train, proved a deadly foe for the knights who had dominated the battlefield for so many years. Armies were often comprised of a combination of musketeers, cannon, and knights, each complementing the strengths and weaknesses of the others. Large forces of musketeers within a fortress or behind city walls proved an exceedingly difficult obstacle to an attacking army. Muskets were the primary firearms in use until they were replaced by repeating rifles in the mid-19th century.

Musketeer

French Musketeers are troops specifically trained to use the new weapon, the musket. They are better on defense than normal musketmen.

A French city must have saltpeter in its Strategic Resource box to build a musketeer.

Although often used to designate the flintlock-armed formations of a number of European countries, the term "Musketeer" generally refers to the King's Guard under Louis XIII and Louis XIV of France, immortalized in Dumas's famous novel. As such, the Musketeers served as a training ground for the young nobility, intended to be the elite of the army. Training not only included mastery of all weapons, from epee to musket, but instruction in social skills and military etiquette as well. In peacetime, the Musketeers served as the King's personal escort. Monsieur Treville, one of the Louis XIII's advisors and ardent sponsor of the Musketeers, and Cardinal Richelieu, who maintained his own company of guards, were political adversaries until the banishment of Treville following a 1642 plot to assassinate the Cardinal. Following that, the prestige of the Musketeers declined. In the military reforms that followed the death of Louis XIV, the Musketeers were disbanded and absorbed into the ranks of the French army.

Rifleman

Riflemen are powerful defenders. By the time you can build these, saltpeter is in abundance and is not needed.

Two developments in the 19th century made early firearms (such as the musket) obsolete. The first was the invention of a spiral groove, or "rifling," inside the barrel of a gun. Second was the development of the repeating rifle, which could fire multiple shots before it required reloading. The rifle was a better weapon than its ancestors, with much more accuracy over a greater range than the musket and a much higher rate of fire.

Riflemen were first employed in large numbers during the American Civil War. The rifle gave a strong defensive advantage, since riflemen could fire several times while the attackers advanced to within hand-to-hand distance. This was normally enough to hold any position. Riflemen dominated the battlefield until the appearance of armored attack vehicles.

Infantry

Infantry represents the first well organized ground troops with rifles. They are extremely good defenders but are also formidable on the offensive.

Modern infantry is given the challenging task of taking and holding terrain, which often involves dangerous, close range fighting. Organized into small squads, their strength lies in their training and equipment (rifle, grenades, helmet, and other critical gear). Often individuals in the squad are trained to be specialists, allowing them access to anti-tank weapons or light machine guns. Experienced in concealment and patrolling close to the enemy, these hard-fighting men play an important and versatile role in modern military conflict.

Marine

Marines are infantry units specially trained to execute amphibious assaults. They can unload from a sea transport into any coastal land square, including enemy cities and enemy-occupied squares.

A city must have rubber in its Strategic Resource box to build a marine.

The Marines Corps is a branch of the military service whose training prepares them to carry out integrated land, sea, and air operations. The first marines were commissioned during the American Revolution, only to be inactivated after the war. Congress permanently reestablished the Marine Corps in July, 1798. Legendary for their toughness, rigid codes of behavior, and adaptability, they have played an important role in almost every major war and conflict of the 19th and 20th centuries.

Paratrooper

Modern Paratroops are infantrymen specially trained to execute airdrops. When a paratrooper is active in a city with an airport it may perform an airdrop. Press A then click a target square within range to launch the airdrop. Otherwise, paratroops act as normal infantry.

A city must have oil and rubber in its Strategic Resource box to build a paratrooper.

Modern paratroopers are highly trained soldiers capable of fighting behind enemy lines for long periods of time. They use a variety of techniques including HALO (high altitude, low opening) jumps, which permit covert insertion of paratroopers -- the transport plane flies too high to be detected, and the paratroopers open their chutes too low for the chutes to be spotted by the enemy. Virtually all military Special Forces training includes parachute training, since it is a key element of modern commando operations.

Guerilla

Guerilla infantry units are typically used to exert pressure on enemy units and civilizations. They are equipped to act as both offensive and defensive units, possessing equal amounts of training in both.

Guerillas are typically members of an irregular military force fighting small-scale, limited actions, in concert with an overall political-military strategy, against conventional military forces. Guerrilla tactics involve constantly shifting attack operations and include the use of sabotage and terrorism. Traditionally, guerrilla warfare has been a weapon of protest against alleged wrongs imposed on a people by a foreign invader or ruling government. Guerrillas may operate independently or complement orthodox military operations. The underlying strategy in guerrilla warfare is to harass the enemy until sufficient military strength has accumulated in order to defeat him in battle or until enough political and military pressure is applied to cause him to seek peace.

WWII_Paratrooper

Paratroops are infantrymen specially trained to execute airdrops. When a paratrooper is active in a city with an airport it may perform an airdrop. Press A then click a target square within range to launch the airdrop. Otherwise, paratroops act as normal infantry.

A city must have oil and rubber in its Strategic Resource box to build a paratrooper.

Although the idea of the parachute was suggested in the 16th century drawings of Leonardo da Vinci, the first parachute was not invented until the late 1700s. For years, parachutes were standard emergency equipment for balloonists. Claire Chennault, an American pioneer of aviation pursuit tactics during World War I, was the first to suggest using parachutes to drop troops behind enemy lines. This idea was widely used during World War II. Paratroopers were flown behind enemy lines in transport planes and dropped from low altitude, allowing them to attack the enemy from behind. All sides in WWII made extensive use of paratroopers; German paratroopers seized the island of Crete, albeit at great cost, and American and British paratroopers played a key role in the liberation of France.

MECHANIZED UNITS

Mech_Infantry

Mechanized infantry are fast-moving defensive units that will withdraw from combat if losing (unless fighting another fast unit).

A city must have both oil and rubber in its Strategic Resource box to build mechanized infantry.

The introduction of armored tanks meant that armies could quickly break through enemy defensive positions and move aggressively forward on the battlefield. Such a quick advance, however, left the ground won in the advance largely undefended. Mechanized infantry, which was first used during World War II, was designed to move in quickly and defend the conquered area behind the tanks. Infantry were mounted in armored vehicles, such as half-tracks and Armored Personnel Carriers (APCs), to carry them quickly and safely along with the rapidly-advancing armored divisions.

Tank

Tanks are fast-moving offensive units that can attack multiple times in a single turn and withdraw from combat if they are losing (unless fighting another fast unit, of course).

A city must have both oil and rubber in its Strategic Resource box to build tanks.

The rise in the use of semi-automatic and automatic firearms in the late 19th and early 20th century led to the demise of horse-mounted cavalry. As a result, attackers lost a significant advantage in both scouting and deployment. It was only with the development of tanks, armored mobile attack vehicles equipped with high caliber-guns, that a weapon was found which could once more punch a hole through enemy field forces. First appearing in World War I, armored attack vehicles move quickly and strike with power, while still possessing an effective defensive strength. Tanks are powerful weapon against any ground unit.

Panzer

The German Panzer is an awesome offensive and screening unit that can attack multiple times in a single turn and withdraw from combat if losing the fight (unless fighting another fast unit, of course).

A city must have both oil and rubber in its Strategic Resource box to build Panzers.

The increased speed of the German Panzer makes their blitz maneuvers much more dangerous to their enemies, a power which is noted by all nations foolish enough to stand against Germany in the industrial age.

Modern_Armor

Modern armored units are faster and much more powerful than ordinary tanks. These are truly awesome war machines that can attack multiple times in a single turn and withdraw from combat if losing the fight (unless fighting another fast unit, of course).

A city must have aluminum, oil and rubber in its Strategic Resource box to build modern armor.

Modern armor's goal is to provide versatile firepower that can operate in any battlefield condition, while at the same time ensuring the safety of its crew. Sophisticated electronics allows modern tanks to operate in any weather, day or night, with no significant performance degradation. Capable of nearly 50 mph in rugged terrain, these fighting vehicles are often in the 50-60 ton range. Though their firepower varies, most of these advanced tracked vehicles are equipped with 100mm+ cannons, in addition to other smaller caliber machine guns. Depending on the assignment, some versions include "reactive" armor, which helps to thwart the advanced armor-penetrating munitions seen on today's battlefields.

TOW_Infantry

TOW Infantry uses high-tech missile systems to fight tanks. They can bombard when attacked.

TOW stands for Tube-launched Optically-tracked Wire-guided (missile). A TOW missile can be fired by a lone infantry soldier; its purpose is armor penetration, meaning that TOW-armed infantry units can effectively fight tanks, destroying very expensive and difficult-to-train units at the risk of a substantially cheaper one. TOW missiles are especially effective in tank-unfriendly terrain, permitting pot-shots from heavy cover. TOW missiles are gaining popularity in nations whose armed forces are not cutting edge, although they are still a little too expensive for wide use among poorly funded irregular forces.

Flak

Flak is a mobile anti-aircraft cannon. It has a high Anti-Air rating.

Flak, an acronym for the German Fliegerabwehrkanone (flyer defense cannon), is a type of short-to-medium range air defense system. Flak cannons fire shells that explode in the air, generating shrapnel and shock waves that damage enemy aircraft -- they are not aimed at specific aircraft but at formations and to screen avenues of bombing attack. They are usually employed in large numbers, creating screens and clouds of shell explosions in the air. Since they are as much a danger to friendly aircraft as to enemy, they are typically the last line of air defense. The earliest flak cannons were used during World War I, targeting enemy observation balloons and aircraft.

Mobile_SAM

The Mobile SAM is a powerful anti-aircraft weapon.

SAMs, or Surface to Air Missiles, are the primary means by which modern armies defend themselves against air attack. They come in a staggering variety of cost, effectiveness, and portability, and can be used against enemy planes or missiles. During the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979, Afghan rebels made extensive use of U.S.-supplied Stinger missiles, a type of shoulder-launched SAM, to inflict massive losses on the Soviet helicopter forces. Some SAMs are fired from much larger launchers and use sophisticated radar systems, or communications systems that link them to dedicated radar arrays, to target supersonic aircraft at high altitudes. The neutralization of an enemy's SAM defense capability is often the first objective for an attacking air force.

ARTILLERY UNITS

Catapult

Primitive artillery, catapults are devastating siege weapons in Ancient Times. They are used to bombard city defenses to soften the attack for accompanying soldiers. Catapults have no attack or defense power, so they should be protected by an escort. Finally, catapults are wheeled so they may not enter mountain, volcano, jungle or marsh terrain unless along a road.

The catapult was one of the earliest forms of artillery. It was a large mechanical arm that propelled heavy stones and other missiles from a great distance, battering down walls and inflicting damage on buildings and defenders. Though cumbersome and nearly useless on the battlefield, the catapult was an effective weapon for siege operations.

Trebuchet

The trebuchet is a powerful siege weapon developed during the Middle Ages. It is most effective when used to bombard a fortified city to soften its defenses. Like its sister unit the catapult, a trebuchet needs to be protected by an escort as it has no attack or defense power on its own. Finally, a trebuchet is wheeled, thus it may not enter mountain, volcano, jungle or marsh terrain unless following a road.

Siege weaponry and technology deteriorated during the Dark Ages. However, the invention of the trebuchet in the 12th century reversed that trend. The trebuchet represented a leap forward in siege engineering. Instead of throwing missiles purely through torque, as the catapult did, the trebuchet used a sort of see-saw motion, with a heavy counterweight opposite the launching end to accurately throw rocks and other missiles great distances. Some trebuchets were even adjustable, so their force, arc, and range could be changed by the crew without moving the contraption itself.

Cannon

The cannon is a more advanced artillery unit, capable of bombarding adjacent targets to reduce them before other units attack outright. Cannons have no attack or defense value, so they should be protected by an escort. Further, they are wheeled units, so they cannot enter mountain, volcano, jungle or marsh terrain unless following a road.

A city must have both iron and saltpeter in its Strategic Resource box to build cannon.

Closely following the invention of gunpowder, the development of the cannon caused a revolution in siege warfare. Invented by a German monk in the 14th century, early cannons used gunpowder charges to fire rocks or metal balls. The cannon forced a redesign of most fortifications because the straight, high walls surrounding most cities could be easily destroyed by direct fire. This was the fate of the walls of Constantinople, which had held against countless sieges for over a thousand years. The cannon quickly assumed an important role on the battlefield.

Hwacha

The Hwach'a replaces the cannon as the siege weapon of choice for the Korean civilization in the Middle Ages. The Hwach'a is a more advanced artillery unit, capable of bombarding adjacent targets. Hwach'a have no attack or defense value, so they should be protected by an escort. Further, they are wheeled units, so they cannot enter mountain, volcano, jungle or marsh terrain unless following a road.

The Hwach'a has both Lethal Sea and Land Bombardment.

A city must have saltpeter in its Strategic Resource to build a Hwach'a.

Some of the first anti-personnel devices created in Korea were comprised of small rockets attached to arrows, which flung spikes upon detonation. When it was discovered that several of these rockets could be launched from the same container, larger versions of these anti-personnel devices were created and utilized in battle. These larger anti-personnel devices were designed to be transported on wheeled vehicles such as a two-wheeled carts and wheelbarrows. The Hwach'a, which was invented in 1451, allowed a single man to transport approximately 100 rockets into battle, and was well suited to combat the invading Japanese Samurai who typically advanced on the Koreans in dense groups, presenting ideal targets for the Hwach'a operators.

Artillery

The first long range unit, Artillery can bombard targets two squares distant. Artillery has no attack or defense value, so they should be protected by an escort.

Artillery is a general term covering several varieties of large-caliber weapons including mortars and field guns. Mortars fire an explosive projectile in a high arc, and are particularly effective against small, concealed targets. Field guns, long-range weapons that fire their projectiles in a flat arc, are used primarily for their ability to penetrate hard targets. Powerful enough to batter opposing forces even behind the strongest fortifications, artillery is also able to move quickly from one firing position to another. This is an important capability when fighting a moving battle or when avoiding enemy fire.

Radar_Artillery

Radar Artillery are highly advanced stand-off attack units. The radar allow them to see up to two squares distant, regardless of blocking terrain, and fire that far as well. Radar Artillery has no attack or defense value, so it should be protected by an escort.

A city must have aluminum in its Strategic Resource box to build radar artillery.

Modern radar has had two major impacts on field artillery. The first is that it can accurately "trace" fire from enemy artillery back to their firing location. The second is to better aim their own artillery to return fire more quickly and accurately. While increasing the technical sophistication of indirect fire weapons (including the support personnel required to maintain such high tech devices), it has also increased their flexibility. Radar has enabled the precise targeting of enemies at any time of day, in any weather condition.

Cruise_Missile

Cruise missiles are long-range, fire-and-forget weapons that can find the target on their own. Like all artillery-type units, cruise missiles have no attack or defense values, only bombardment.

The Cruise Missle has both Lethal Land and Sea Bombardment.

A city must have aluminum in its Strategic Resource box to build cruise missiles.

One of the most effective weapons in modern military arsenals is the cruise missile. The AGM-86 and the Tomahawk can be launched against a strategic target hundreds of miles away, traveling low to avoid radar and other means of detection, and hitting their target with unnerving accuracy. They can also be used against short-range, tactical targets such as ships. In this role, it is often possible for a single, one million dollar missile to seriously damage or even destroy 80 million dollar warships.

Nuke

Tactical nuclear missiles have a long range and devastating effect. They can be loaded onto nuclear subs and launched from the sea. If used, nuclear weapons have a tremendous negative effect upon world opinion.

The bombard range of a Tactical Nuke is 6 squares.

A city must have aluminum and uranium in its Strategic Resource box to build tactical nuclear missiles.

Tactical nuclear weapons are those whose payload is typically less than five kilotons. These weapons are designed to be used in close range of friendly troops, and attempt to minimize collateral damage. One method of this involves "boosting" the radiation effects of a nuclear blast, which reduces the destructive fireball. Such bombs have the added benefit of irradiating tanks and other instruments of war. During the blast any crew of such a vehicle would be instantly killed from radiation 10 times stronger than the documented "lethal" dose. Should that vehicle be manned within the next 24-48 hours, the new crew would suffer the same fate. While fears of blurring the line between conventional and nuclear warfare have restricted deployment of these weapons, many world powers continue to investigate the concept of battlefield nuclear weapons.

ICBM

An ICBM (inter-continental ballistic missile) has an unlimited range, and like the tactical nuke, has a devastating effect. They cannot be moved from the city that builds them but can strike any target on the map. Nuclear weapons, if used, have a tremendous negative effect upon world opinion.

A city must have aluminum and uranium in its Strategic Resource box to build ICBMs.

The use of atomic bombs at Nagasaki and Hiroshima at the end of World War II changed the world's standards for measuring military power. Nuclear weapons can eradicate ground forces and armored divisions, and flatten cities with their awesome explosive power. In the years following World War II, arsenals of nuclear weapons were rapidly built by opposing nations, each fearing the capabilities of the other. This massive arms buildup has acted as a deterrent to full-scale war, since all the governments involved are aware of the consequences should such a war take place. The threat imposed by the huge nuclear arsenals of the world powers may one day be eradicated by the development of the Strategic Defense Initiative, or SDI, a system designed to destroy enemy missiles in flight before they can reach their targets.

NAVAL UNITS

Curragh

The Curragh is the first naval unit you can build. It is a tiny, primitive boat that must end each turn in a coastal square -- they are in danger of sinking if they end their turn in a sea or ocean square.

"Curragh" is an Irish name for a small boat made of skin stretched over a frame of wood. The origins of this small boat date back many thousands of years, predating the more sophisticated and larger war galley. In the game the curragh can represent any small boat (papyrus, wooden canoes or rafts, etc.) used by ancient people to expedite movement up and down waterways and along coastal shorelines.

Galley

The galley is a dangerous warship of the ancient era. A galley must end each turn in a coastal square -- they are in danger of sinking if they end their turn in a sea or ocean square. If The Great Lighthouse is built, galleys may safely end turns at sea, but never ocean squares.

The galley was the first ship designed for war. Introduced by the Greeks, galleys were powered by banks of oars on each side, manned by well-trained oarsmen. These oarsmen were highly paid professionals or patriotic citizens, not slaves and prisoners as depicted in fiction. A huge, bronze "beak" mounted at the bow of the ship was used to ram and sink enemy ships. Because of its long, narrow hull, the galley was very unstable in all but the calmest waters, and as a consequence its crew rarely ventured out of sight of land for long periods of time, lest the ship be caught in a storm and sunk.

Dromon

Byzantine Dromons are a type of galley with an enhanced offensive capability, as it can let loose a hot stream of "Greek Fire."

The Dromon has Lethal Sea Bombardment.

The dromon was the end result of Byzantine ingenuity applied to old Greek ship designs. Powered by rowers, its primary virtue was its versatility -- the wide, flat decks could be mounted with a variety of weapons. There were many classes of dromon, from light escort and reconnaissance designs to heavy warships. Dromons often included mini-forts made of wood from which marines could sally forth or fire bows, as well as catapults, rams, ballistae, and later, Greek fire launchers. These dangerous and devastating primitive flamethrowers spelled death to enemies in an age where all ships were made of flammable wood and crew were constantly exposed on the upper decks.

Caravel

The Caravel is a sea-going vessel that may safely traverse coast and sea squares. If it ends a turn in an ocean square, it is in danger of sinking.

The caravel was a small sailing ship with three or four masts, a broad bow, and a high, narrow stern. Though often used as a warship, the caravel could also carry just over 100 metric tons of cargo. The Spanish and the Portuguese used caravels for both commerce and exploration. Christopher Columbus' three ships, the "Nina," "Pinta," and "Santa Maria," were caravels that risked the hazards of an ocean crossing.

Frigate

The Frigate is the first purely military naval unit. It can safely traverse any water, bombard into adjacent squares, and attack other naval vessels.

A coastal city needs both iron and saltpeter in its Strategic Resource box to build Frigates.

The frigate was a fast and powerful warship that evolved to fill several important roles, but one of its primary roles was to raid enemy shipping. These three masted ships were lighter and faster than the European great ship or man-of-war, and usually carried 36 or fewer guns. The frigate was powerful enough to overcome most of its prospective opponents and fast enough to escape those it could not outgun. Because of their speed and strength, frigates were often employed as escorts for merchant vessels during times of war. The frigate remained the most useful and dominant naval vessel until the development of the ironclad.

Man-O-War

The English Man-O-War is a powerful frigate that only the English may build.

The English Man-O-War can Enslave, and a successful enslavement creates another Man-O-War.

An English coastal city needs both iron and saltpeter in its Strategic Resource box to build the Man-O-War.

By the middle of the 17th century cannons arrayed along the sides of fighting ships had become the decisive weapon of naval warfare. Heavy guns required a gun deck and a short, sturdy hull, which were at odds with the galley's requirements of lightness and length. The late Elizabethan galleon that became the true man-o-war class reached its culmination in England's Prince Royal of 1610 and the larger Sovereign of the Seas of 1637, mounting guns on three decks; the Sovereign of the Seas, the most formidable ship afloat in its time, carried 100 guns. By the mid-1700s, great ships-of-the-line such as the British Victory and French L'Orient dominated naval warfare, and would continue to do so until the advent of the ironclad.

Privateer

Privateers are small frigates that carry no nationality markings, allowing them to attack and be attacked without revealing the nationality of the ship. Thus, you can attack another civilization's shipping without precipitating war.

A coastal city needs both iron and saltpeter in its Strategic Resource box to build privateers.

A Privateer can Enslave.

Privateers were men who owned their own ship and were commissioned by a nation to attack the naval traffic of their foes. To facilitate anonymity, very little compensation was paid to the crew and captain by their patron government. Rather, they were given a portion of the cargo and goods seized in the execution of their duties. While this made the profession popular with their crew, it eventually became a critical element of the practices disbanding. When nations attempted to staff their own navies for brewing conflicts, they frequently were unable to secure the manpower needed (all able bodied sailors already in privateering). Privateers were wide-spread throughout most European history, but they finally vanished during the 19th century.

Galleon

The Galleon is a large, lightly-armed, wooden transport. It is incapable of bombardment but can carry numerous units.

By the late 15th century, oar-powered vessels had all but disappeared from the world's oceans, to be replaced by sailing vessels of various types. The galleon was one such vessel. Galleons were three- or four-masted ships, built high in both the forecastle and the stern. Developed in the 15th and 16th century, these versatile ships were mainly used as cargo vessels, although they were sometimes outfitted as light warships as well. Ships of this type served European nations well into the 1700s.

Ironclad

The forerunner of the modern battleship, the Ironclad is a tough defender against anything but more modern warships.

A coastal city needs coal and iron in its Strategic Resource box to build an ironclad.

Ironclads were the forerunners of future generations of armored naval vessels. Instead of the simple wooden hulls found on the other ships at the time, ironclads were covered with strong metal plating. This plating made them nearly impervious to large-caliber explosive shells that would easily penetrate and destroy wooden vessels. Ironclads made their first appearance during the American Civil War, and quickly gained dominance over other ships of that era. Perhaps the most famous naval battle of the Civil War was the battle between the Confederate ironclad "Merrimack", and the Union ironclad "Monitor", which lasted for several hours before the "Merrimack" was forced to withdraw.

Transport

While barely able to defend itself, the Transport can move large quantities of military forces over the bounding main. A transport carrying Marines can be a significant off-shore threat to any nation.

A coastal city needs oil in its Strategic Resource box to build a transport.

The troop transport ship, which in peacetime serves as a cargo or passenger vessel, is the principle means used by modern powers to move large quantities of military equipment and personnel over long distances. Because transports lack offensive weaponry, they require armed vessels as escorts during times of war. A properly escorted transport can move large military forces to a new area quickly to act as reinforcements or as an attacking force.

Carrier

Aircraft Carriers carry air units and are legitimate airbases. Air units may re-base to carriers, and can launch missions from them. Carriers are equipped with Radar, so they can see two squares in all directions, regardless of any blocking terrain.

A coastal city needs oil in its Strategic Resource box to build a carrier.

The aircraft carrier first came into widespread use during World War II. Carriers act as floating airfields, carrying fighters and bombers far from friendly territory to be launched against enemy targets. This allows an air strike against targets on both land and sea that would otherwise be far out of range. The range of the aircraft launched from carriers forever changed the methodology of naval battles. Opposing fleets could now engage in battle without either fleet ever entering the other's visual range, ending the dominance of the battleship as the strongest vessel on the sea.

Submarine

Submarines can operate invisibly to enemy units because they travel beneath the waves. They remain invisible until they attack a surface ship, after which they again disappear. However, other submarines and AEGIS Cruisers and Destroyers can see them plainly. In addition, Submarines have Stealth Attack.

A coastal city needs oil in its Strategic Resource box to build a sub.

A submarine is a submersible warship, designed to attack enemy vessels while remaining hidden underwater. Although defensively weak, submarines are feared because of their ability to make a stealthy approach and attack without warning. Often, the presence of a submarine is not detected until the first of the sub's torpedoes strikes its target. The Germans first used submarine warfare extensively during World War I. Developments after the war, such as sonar, made the submarine even more effective. During World War II, submarines were used extensively by all the world's naval powers. Today's submarines, in addition to their role as fast attack vessels, also carry nuclear weapons that can be fired from underwater positions just off the coast of an enemy country.

Destroyer

Destroyers are fast surface warships capable of bombardment and normal naval combat. They can also detect invisible units, such as Submarines.

A coastal city needs oil in its Strategic Resource box to build a destroyer.

Destroyers are small escort ships that serve a variety of useful functions. These light, fast vessels were used extensively in World War II to provide air and sea cover for carrier groups. One of the primary functions of the destroyer is to locate and destroy enemy submarines. Using their sonar equipment to locate the subs, and their batteries of depth charges and torpedoes to destroy them, the destroyer forces of World War II were the key to the success of many crucial naval operations. Modern destroyers are still used in much the same role, as escorts for larger vessels and as submarine hunters. In addition to five-inch guns, the arsenal of today's destroyer includes anti-submarine helicopters, anti-ship cruise missiles, and the Phalanx system for defense against anti-ship missiles.

Battleship

"The Queen of the seas," the Battleship has a bombardment range of two and packs a terrific punch both in traditional naval engagements and in offshore bombardment.

A coastal city needs oil in its Strategic Resource box to build a battleship.

The battleship was once the most powerful vessel on the seas. Heavily armored and difficult to destroy, its massive guns could accurately fire heavy projectiles at targets miles away. The battleship had two primary functions: clearing the seas of enemy ships and bombarding enemy coastal targets, usually in preparation for an invasion. The battleship's importance began to decline in World War II when the increasing use of fighters and bombers launched from aircraft carriers greatly extended the range of naval conflicts. Ship-to-ship combat became less frequent than long-range air attacks against enemy battle groups. The last of the U.S. Navy's battleships was decommissioned shortly after the Vietnam War, but the four battleships of the Iowa class were remodeled and re-commissioned in the 1980s.

AEGIS_Cruiser

AEGIS Cruisers are nimble and lethal. They can bombard up to two squares away; they have radar so they can see two squares regardless of blocking terrain; and they can see submarines when within their radar range. All in all the AEGIS Cruiser is a formidable warship.

A coastal city needs aluminum and uranium in its Strategic Resource box to build an AEGIS Cruiser.

Cruisers have long served in the role of escort and defensive vessels, screening carrier task forces and amphibious assaults from enemy ships and aircraft. In recent years, the abilities of the cruiser have been upgraded significantly. In addition to their traditional five-inch guns, cruisers also carry batteries of Harpoon and Tomahawk missiles. The latest development in cruiser armament is the AEGIS surface-to-air missile system, which allows cruisers to target and fire their missiles more accurately and more effectively than ever before. The cruisers of today are highly capable of intercepting and destroying enemy submarines, surface ships, aircraft, and missiles.

Nuclear_Submarine

Nuclear Submarines are faster than normal subs and have the ability to carry a Tactical Nuclear Missile on board. They can launch these from the sea. In addition, Nuclear Submarines have Stealth Attack.

A coastal city needs uranium in its Strategic Resource box to build a Nuclear Submarine.

Nuclear submarines are sea vehicles that are capable of remaining underwater for months at a time. This was possible because of the transition into nuclear, rather than diesel, generators. Typically equipped with both nuclear and anti-submarine missiles, they presented a new threat to those nations engaging in nuclear deterrence. Since these mobile, virtually invisible ships could close to within a few dozen miles of a target, the reaction time to a nuclear attack could be reduced to minutes. Any nation who relied solely on land based missile launch systems stood a very good chance of being crippled before any opportunity to retaliate. This imbalance was righted however, as all announced nuclear powers soon had their own fleet of nuclear attack submarines. The difficulty in detection of nuclear submarines means that only other nuclear submarines had a viable chance at stopping one.

Carrack

A Portuguese Carrack is a sea-going vessel that may safely traverse coast and sea squares. Unlike a caravel, if a carrack ends its turn in an ocean square, it will not sink, and the carrack has a higher attack strength than a caravel.

When Viking longships encountered Mediterranean trading galleys, enterprising shipbuilders combined the two designs. The result was the carrack, a sturdy, square-rigged ship with three masts that retained the longships' sturdy construction (necessary in the treacherous northern seas) and the maneuverability of the Mediterranean trade ships. This combination allowed carracks to foray into waters never before seen by European eyes -- and to carry back goods and maps from those faraway lands.

Cruiser

Cruisers are fast surface warships that can bombard one square away; they are stronger and more heavily armed than a destroyer. They have radar so they can see two squares regardless of blocking terrain.

A coastal city needs oil in its Strategic Resource box to build a cruiser.

Cruisers have long served in the role of escort and defensive vessels, screening carrier task forces and amphibious assaults from enemy ships and aircraft. During WWII cruisers were classified as light ("CL") or heavy ("CA"). Light cruisers typically had guns no larger than 6" in diameter, whereas heavy cruisers had guns larger than 6" but smaller than 8". Unlike most cruisers fielded by the Allies, Japanese cruisers also sported deadly banks of "Long Lance" oxygen-fueled torpedoes. Furthermore, Japanese cruisers carried reloads for their deadly torpedoes (torpedoes were one-shot deals for other navies).

AIR UNITS

Fighter

Fighters may execute all air missions except precision strikes. They may be based in any city or aircraft carrier on the map.

The Fighter has Lethal Sea Bombardment.

A city needs oil in its Strategic Resource box to build a fighter.

The earliest military aircraft were used primarily in a reconnaissance role. In 1915, during World War I, aircraft designer Anthony Fokker developed a gear system that allowed a plane-mounted machine gun to fire through the propeller, giving birth to the first fighter aircraft. The fighter's mission was to shoot down enemy reconnaissance and fighter planes. Later, as the use of bombers became more widespread, fighters were called upon to act as interceptors against enemy bombing runs and escorts for friendly bombers. The best way to ensure the safe passage of friendly bombers to their selected targets is the destruction of enemy fighters.

Bomber

Bombers are not as versatile as fighters, but they have a larger operational range and greater bombardment power. They may be based in any city or aircraft carrier on the map.

The Bomber has both Lethal Land and Sea Bombardment.

A city needs oil in its Strategic Resource box to build a bomber.

The bombing of strategic targets from the air dates back to the beginning of World War I, when the Germans used zeppelins to bomb Paris and London. Because zeppelins proved to be extremely vulnerable, they were withdrawn from war in favor of airplanes. By the end of World War I planes were being designed specifically as bombers. The bomber's job is to carry bombs into enemy territory, normally beyond the range of artillery, and destroy targets of military and economic value. Bombers were often designed for specific missions, such as attacking ships, bombing vehicles and railroads, daylight precision bombing, and carpet-bombing.

Helicopter

Helicopters are essentially air transports that can transport units to any square within their operational range, regardless of enemy units. Helicopters may carry foot soldiers only -- no mechanized units allowed.

A city needs oil and rubber in its Strategic Resource box to build a helicopter.

The concept that was to become the modern helicopter was first explored by artist/engineer Leonardo da Vinci. He made sketches of a rotor-driven aircraft in the early 16th century. It was not until 1939, however, that the first practical helicopter design was developed. Helicopters have a distinct advantage over fixed-wing aircraft in that they can take off and land vertically. This makes it possible for helicopters to operate in many places that would be too small to accommodate a runway. Today, helicopters are used in civilian roles as rescue vehicles and by law enforcement agencies. All branches of the military utilize many different types of helicopters, from giant cargo and troop carriers to fast and maneuverable gunships used as air support for ground troop operations.

Jet_Fighter

Jet Fighters are faster versions of their predecessor. They may execute all air missions except precision strikes. Jet Fighters have radar that allows the unit to "see" two squares regardless of blocking terrain. They may be based in any city or aircraft carrier on the map.

The Jet Fighter has Lethal Sea Bombardment.

A city needs oil and aluminum in its Strategic Resource box to build a jet fighter.

The introduction of jet engines to fighter aircraft changed the way man wages war in the skies. The primary impact was that of speed, since even early jet engines were able to outperform their rotary peers by three to one. While this improvement was certainly appreciated by their pilots (speed advantages often translate to more options in air combat), it was some time before the nature of this change was fully understood. Dogfighting became a significantly more difficult task, since the window to 'take a shot' was reduced to an instant. The introduction of guided missiles helped address this, as well as increase engagement ranges to beyond what the pilot could visually see. Though missiles dramatically changed air combat, cannons still remained a staple of the vehicles' arsenal. Missiles could be jammed, and early attempts were fraught with unreliability. Without a backup weapon, pilots were often at the mercy of inferior planes, but ones where the pilot wasn't relying on shaky, emerging technologies.

F-15

Like other jet fighters F-15s are faster versions of their predecessor and F-15s pack very potent attack power. They may execute all air missions and have radar that allows them to "see" two squares, regardless of blocking terrain. They may be based in any city or aircraft carrier on the map. In addition, F-15's have Stealth Attack.

The F-15 has both Lethal Land and Sea Bombardment.

An American city needs oil and aluminum in its Strategic Resource box to build an F-15.

The successor to the Grumman F-14 Tomcat, the F-15 was the first military aircraft with a genuine "look-down/shoot-down" capability, the product of pulse-Doppler radars that could detect fast-moving targets against cluttered radar reflections from the ground. Also designated the Eagle, the American F-15 was a twin-engine jet fighter produced by the McDonnell Douglas Corporation. Based on a design proposed in 1969 for an air-superiority fighter, it has also been extensively used in fighter-bomber versions. For two decades, it was the primary fighter of the American Air Force. F-15s were delivered to the U.S. Air Force between 1974 and 1994, and since have been sold to American allies and assembled under contract in Japan. The "Strike" Eagle carried out much of the nighttime precision bombing of Iraqi installations during the Persian Gulf conflict (1990-1991), as well as sweeping the Iraqi Air Force from the skies.

Stealth_Fighter

Stealth fighters can do almost everything normal jet fighters do and more. They can execute all air missions, except air superiority. Due to their stealth technology, stealth fighters are very difficult to intercept by enemy air superiority fighters, and/or SAM batteries. And they have radar that allows them to see two squares, regardless of blocking terrain.

The Stealth Fighter has both Lethal Land and Sea Bombardment.

A city must have oil and aluminum in its Strategic Resource box to build a stealth fighter.

Starting in the Second World War, radar technology came into widespread use both for detection and targeting of aircraft. Because of this, aeronautical engineers began searching for ways to make aircraft less "visible" to electronic tracking and weapon systems. The earliest stealth technologies consisted of coating aircraft with materials that would absorb rather than deflect a radar signal. In the late 1970s, designs incorporating this technology, as well as a unique fuselage shape designed to deflect radar away from its source, were prototyped. The first true stealth fighter, the Lockheed F-117A, flew for the first time on June 18, 1981. This fighter, incorporating the latest anti-radar and anti-thermal innovations, is capable of entering enemy territory, delivering its payload, and returning to base with little chance of detection. These unique, black aircraft served well in the Persian Gulf War in 1991, and have served as the basis for further development of stealth aircraft technology.

Stealth_Bomber

Stealth Bombers can do everything normal bombers can do and more. They can execute all air missions, except air superiority. Due to their stealth technology, stealth bombers are very difficult to intercept by enemy air superiority fighters, and/or SAM batteries.

The Stealth Bomber has both Lethal Land and Sea Bombardment.

A city must have oil and aluminum in its Strategic Resource to build a stealth bomber.

Concurrent with the development of a stealth fighter, aeronautical engineers began to apply stealth technology to a full-scale bomber. The B-1B bomber, which went into service in 1986 as a replacement for the B-52, incorporated some of these innovations. The radar signature of the B-1B was reduced to a mere one percent that of the B-52 due to its low cross-section and its minimal use of radar-reflective, hard-edged surfaces. Soon after the B-1B entered service, the U.S. Air Force commissioned Northrop to develop a true stealth bomber as an eventual replacement. First revealed to the public in 1988, the B-2 stealth bomber uses a flying wing design similar in shape to the F-117A stealth fighter. The flying wing design reduces the profile of the B-2 by incorporating its engines into the body of the plane. The engine exhausts and intakes are shielded to prevent infrared tracking. The B-2 also makes use of curved surfaces and radar-absorbing materials to enhance its "invisibility", and make it far less detectable than the B-1B. As of the late 1980s, it was announced that 132 B-2's would be constructed, and would enter service sometime in the 1990s.

KING UNITS

Lincoln

Lincoln is the King unit for the Americans in the Regicide Short Game Mode.

Hammurabi

Hammurabi is the King unit for the Babylonians in the Regicide Short Game Mode.

Mao

Mao is the King unit for the Chinese in the Regicide Short Game Mode.

Bismarck

Bismarck is the King unit for the German in the Regicide Short Game Mode.

Alexander

Alexander is the King unit for the Greeks in the Regicide Short Game Mode.

Caesar

Caesar is the King unit for the Romans in the Regicide Short Game Mode.

Xerxes

Xerxes is the King unit for the Persians in the Regicide Short Game Mode.

Hiawatha

Hiawatha is the King unit for the Iroquois in the Regicide Short Game Mode.

Shaka

Shaka is the King unit for the Zulu in the Regicide Short Game Mode.

Montezuma

Montezuma is the King unit for the Aztecs in the Regicide Short Game Mode.

Catherine

Catherine is the King unit for the Russians in the Regicide Short Game Mode.

Elizabeth

Elizabeth is the King unit for the English in the Regicide Short Game Mode.

Abu

Abu is the King unit for the Arabs in the Regicide Short Game Mode.

Hannibal

Hannibal is the King unit for the Carthaginians in the Regicide Short Game Mode.

Osman

Osman is the King unit for the Ottomans in the Regicide Short Game Mode.

Temujin

Temujin is the King unit for the Mongols in the Regicide Short Game Mode.

Gandhi

Gandhi is the King unit for the Indians in the Regicide Short Game Mode.

Ragnar

Ragnar is the King unit for the Vikings in the Regicide Short Game Mode.

Brennus

Brennus is the King unit for the Celts in the Regicide Short Game Mode.

Tokugawa

Tokugawa is the King unit for the Japanese in the Regicide Short Game Mode.

Joan

Joan d'Arc is the King unit for the French in the Regicide Short Game Mode.

Wang

Wang Kon is the King unit for the Koreans in the Regicide Short Game Mode.

Isabella

Isabella is the King unit for the Spanish in the Regicide Short Game Mode.

Cleopatra

Cleopatra is the King unit for the Egyptians in the Regicide Short Game Mode.

Mursilis

Mursilis is the King unit for the Hittites in the Regicide Short Game Mode.

William_of_Orange

William of Orange is the King unit for the Dutch in the Regicide Short Game Mode.

Gilgamesh

Gilgamesh is the King unit for the Sumerians in the Regicide Short Game Mode.

Charles_V

Charles V is the King unit for the Austrians in the Regicide Short Game Mode.

Henry

Prince Henry is the King unit for the Portuguese in the Regicide Short Game Mode.

Theodora

Theodora is the King unit for the Byzantines in the Regicide Short Game Mode.

Pachacuti

Pachacuti is the King unit for the Inca in the Regicide Short Game Mode.

Smoke-Jaguar

Smoke-Jaguar (often called Smoke-Imix) is the King unit for the Maya in the Regicide Short Game Mode.

OTHER SGM UNITS

Princess

The Princess functions as the flag in the Capture the Princess Short Game Mode.

City Improvements

Palace

The Palace marks the capital city and center of your empire.
It eliminates corruption/waste in the capital, and decreases it in nearby cities. Each civilization can have only one palace at a time. But each civilization can also build the Forbidden Palace.

When populations began to organize their communities into cities, their governments became more structured and formalized. At an early stage, the ruler of the city established headquarters from which the business of running the city was conducted. In many cases, these buildings also served as the living quarters of the ruler. In wealthy cities, these facilities often expanded into immense, sprawling palaces. These richly adorned, imposing buildings were a source of civic pride, and helped to reinforce the aura of power surrounding the ruler.

Barracks

A city with a Barracks produces veteran ground units instead of regulars and heals ground units completely in one turn.
A city with a Barracks can be used to upgrade ground units.

Warfare has been a recurring phenomenon throughout the history of mankind, and it continues to plague the world today. Although war is not a desirable situation, it is important that even the most peaceful of societies be prepared for the possibility of war. When warring nations are closely matched in technology and manpower, the army with the best training usually wins battles. Military schools and academies exist all over the world, established for the purpose of training military personnel in the latest methods, tactics, and technology. Men and women who graduate from such facilities possess higher than average command and military and technological skills, making them more effective in combat situations.

Granary

The Granary effectively doubles the rate of a city's growth by causing only half of a city's food store to be depleted when the city grows.

Early humans were nomadic, settling in specific regions only for brief periods of time. When the food supply was exhausted in one area, the nomads would move on to search for more. Cities became possible only when the development of agriculture made the supply of food more abundant and dependable. However, cities still needed a way to keep the food supply stable throughout all four seasons. To do so, the citizens had to come up with a way to store seasonal crops for later use. The Granary was designed for the storage and protection of surplus food. Food storage technology meant that a smaller percentage of the population could produce and store enough food for everyone, allowing the remainder to pursue other jobs and activities.

Temple

The Temple produces one content face, making one unhappy citizen content.

In ancient times, almost every city had a temple dedicated to the city's patron god. Many cities also had temples dedicated to other gods as well. In modern times temples are thought of as places of worship, like churches and cathedrals. Ancient societies, however, considered temples to be the local dwelling place for the god or goddess to whom they were dedicated. The faithful citizens brought gifts of food, rare metals, and spices to the temple as a sign of homage and respect. The presence of a temple in the city had a comforting effect on the population, and wise rulers often constructed one as soon as the city began to grow.

Marketplace

The Marketplace increases tax revenue allocated to the treasury by 50%. It also increases the number of happy faces produced by luxuries as per the following list:
* 1 luxury = 1 happy face
* 2 luxuries = 2 happy faces
* 3 luxuries = 4 happy faces
* 4 luxuries = 6 happy faces
* 5 luxuries = 9 happy faces
* 6 luxuries = 12 happy faces
* 7 luxuries = 16 happy faces
* 8 luxuries = 20 happy faces

As cities grew and prospered, trade between the farmers, artisans, and craftsmen who lived in the vicinity contributed to the economic health of the city. It soon became apparent that the best way for conducting trade within the city was to have a central location, or marketplace, where the people offering goods and services, or seeking them, could meet and conduct business. As a city's marketplace grew larger and more active, the economic vitality of the city grew as well.

Library

A city with a Library produces 50% more scientific research than it would without one.

The development of writing meant that the accumulated knowledge of a society could be written down and stored rather than memorized and passed along by word of mouth. The accumulated written material was stored in a library. The libraries of the ancient world, especially those at Alexandria and Pergamum, became leading centers of science and scholarship. The librarians actively collected the books of the world, accelerating the spread of knowledge.

Courthouse

The Courthouse decreases corruption in its city and makes the city more resistant to propaganda.

As kingdoms and empires expanded, it became increasingly difficult for the rulers to maintain control over the more distant regions of their realm. To ensure that the far-flung cities of the empire contributed their expected share of duties and taxes to the government, local magistrates and courts were established. In the courthouse, the ruler's representatives listened to the grievances of the people and defined and enforced the laws that governed social interaction. This reduced crime, and thereby kept the local population productive.

Walls

Walls can be built only in town-size settlements and provide a land bombardment defense of eight, and a 50% defensive bonus to units defending in the town. When a town becomes a city, the walls no longer provide a defensive bonus.

Before the establishment of centralized governments capable of supporting strong, national armies, individual cities were left to fend for themselves when it came to defense. As a result, many cities constructed city walls to protect against raiders and bandits. City walls represented a major investment in both time and materials, requiring years to complete and constant repairs to maintain their strength and integrity. However, these walls turned the city into a fortress capable of withstanding all but the most determined attack.

Aqueduct

A city with an Aqueduct can grow beyond population six.
Note that a city adjacent to fresh water never requires an aqueduct.

A major obstacle to population growth and expansion in early cities was the scarcity of water. In many cases, the solution to this problem was an aqueduct. Aqueducts were large, elevated stone "canals" through which water from nearby hills and mountains was channeled into the city. Aqueducts allowed cities to grow much larger by significantly increasing the amount of available water. At the same time aqueducts reduced the chance of contracting water-borne diseases, by reducing the dependence on stagnant ponds and wells as water sources. Aqueducts also allowed cities to be built in normally inhospitable environments, such as deserts, by providing an outside water source. Modern day Los Angeles, for example, obtains its water supply from the Colorado River, through a system of aqueducts over 200 miles long.

Bank

A Bank increases tax revenue produced in its city by 50%, in addition to any marketplace benefit. You must have a Marketplace to build a Bank.

A highly developed banking system is one of the cornerstones of an advanced civilization. Banks lend money to individuals or groups, providing capital for industrial and real estate development. Banks also contribute to the economic growth of a city or region by stimulating the development of production facilities. Individual citizens can also benefit by investing their own surplus money in the bank and earning interest on it.

Cathedral

The Cathedral produces three content faces, making three unhappy citizens content. You must have a Temple in the city in order to build a Cathedral.

Throughout the Dark Ages that followed the fall of the Roman Empire, the Christian Church was a major influence in the revival of European civilization. In recognition of the expanding influence of the church, great cathedrals were built in the largest towns and cities, to act as centers of religious study and worship. In addition to their religious significance, cathedrals acted as the center of social and cultural activity in the town. They brought great pride, stability, and tradition to the citizens of the community.

University

The University increases the scientific research in its city by 50%. This is in addition to any library benefits already in place. You must have a Library in the city in order to build an University.

Universities are institutions of higher learning. Early universities, established in the Middle Ages, were usually built in cities that had a large or important cathedral. Studies at these institutions focused on matters concerning the church. The curricula quickly expanded to include classical art, literature, and languages. Modern universities provide the opportunity to study a wide array of subjects. They have also become centers for research into many fields, serving as the source of major advances in computers, medicine, physics, and a variety of other subjects.

Colosseum

The Colosseum produces two content faces that make two unhappy citizens content.

The original colosseum provided entertainment for the common people of Roman society by presenting them with spectacles and events as a temporary escape from day-to-day life. This concept has been revived in the 20th Century. Modern-day stadiums and civic centers provide an arena for entertainment ranging from concerts to professional sporting events. Although the violent spectacle of gladiatorial combat is a thing of the past, today's colosseums still provide entertainment and diversion for the masses.

Factory

A Factory increases shield production in its city by 50%. Building a power plant in the same city increases this bonus. Note that factories produce pollution.

Early examples of factory-like production, where a number of individuals work cooperatively to produce goods for sale or trade, can be found as far back as ancient Greece and Rome. Modern factories, however, evolved from the concept of specialized labor, where each worker performed a single step in the overall production of an item. This specialization allows factories to increase the speed and efficiency of the manufacturing process, far surpassing earlier means of production. The development of the factory system as a means of production played a key role in the Industrial Revolution.

Police_Station

The Police Station combats war weariness and decreases corruption in its city.

The concept of a police force operating independently of the military goes back to the Praetorian Guard of ancient Rome. In the Middle Ages, noblemen protected their estates by appointing constables to enforce the law and to arrest and guard criminals, but the first modern, organized police force was the London Metropolitan Police. Established in 1829, this organization became the model for law enforcement organizations in the United States and many other industrialized nations around the world. The presence of a police force serves to uphold the laws of society, and to control civil unrest. A strong, visible police force strengthens confidence of the community by keeping the citizens safe.

Recycling_Center

The Recycling Center decreases pollutionPollution> caused by city improvements.

The continual growth in city populations leads to an inevitable increase in garbage. Eventually, existing landfills and garbage dumps are filled, forcing new dumping sites to be established. This leads to the gradual but steady destruction of the local environment. To reverse this problem, many areas have established recycling centers, where much of the garbage is sorted and reduced to reusable components through various means. These components are then used to manufacture new products. In this way, much of the trash produced is turned into raw materials for production, rather than contributing to the ever-increasing pollution problem.

Manufacturing_Plant

A Manufacturing Plant increases shield production in its city by 50%. Note that manufacturing plants produce pollution. A Factory is required to build a Manufacturing Plant.

Manufacturing plants are large industrial complexes that produce goods of all types, although they are generally used to produce durable consumer goods such as automobiles. Essentially, a manufacturing plant is a large, sophisticated factory that employs specialization of labor, complex machinery, and assembly lines to gain efficiency and economies of scale. This combination of manpower and automation increases productivity and reduces production costs.

Coal_Plant

The Coal Plant increases factory output by 50%.
It does produce pollution.
It replaces any other power plant in the city. A Factory is required to build a Coal Plant.

Power plants burn coal and other fossil fuels to produce the heat and steam necessary to run generators that produce electrical power. When electricity became widely and cheaply available, it meant that industries could convert from steam to electrical power to run their machinery. One central power plant could supply the electrical needs of a relatively large geographic area. However, increasing demands for electricity, by both consumer and commercial customers, led to a rise in the number of power plants. This, in turn, led to problems with air pollution. As more plants went on line, more fossil fuels were burned to generate power. Because modern society depends so heavily on electricity, researchers are constantly searching for alternate forms of energy to satisfy ever-increasing demands.

Hydro_Plant

The Hydro Plant increases factory output by 50%.
It produces no pollution.
It replaces any other power plant in the city. A Factory is required to build a Hydro Plant.

A city must have a river within its radius to build a Hydro Plant.

One alternative to power generation utilizing coal or petroleum fuels is the hydroelectric power plant. This facility utilizes the energy of rapidly moving water to turn the turbines of its generators and produce electricity. In locations where a source of moving water is available, hydro plants offer a clean, safe alternative to coal, petroleum, and nuclear power generation. Hydro plants have their own set of environmental dangers, however. The disruption of a river's normal flow and the massive flooding of the land behind the facility's dam can destroy the habitat of the wildlife inhabiting the river basin.

Nuclear_Plant

The Nuclear Plant increases factory output by 100%.
It does not create any pollution. A Factory is required to build a Nuclear Plant.
Nuclear Plants can meltdown, causing all hell to break loose...

A city must have fresh water within its radius to build a Nuclear Plant. It replaces any other power plant in the city.

Nuclear power plants utilize radioactive materials and the process of nuclear fission to generate the heat and steam needed to run electrical generators and produce electricity. Because nuclear power doesn't cause the air pollution associated with the burning of coal or petroleum products, this means of generating power is considered a viable alternative energy source. However, the toxic nature of the byproducts produced by the fission process creates serious problems of its own. No method of safely disposing of this toxic waste has been found, and the volatile nature of the fission reaction can lead to a meltdown of the reactor core if the reaction is not properly controlled. Because of these problems, the future of nuclear power is uncertain.

Solar_Plant

The Solar Plant increases factory output by 50%.
It produces no pollution, and replaces any other power plant in the city. A Factory is required to build a Solar Plant.

One of the greatest natural sources of energy available on Earth is the sun. Solar energy can be converted directly into electrical power without the need for mechanical generators through the use of photoelectric cells. Alternatively, large solar collectors known as heliostats can be used to focus solar energy into a water boiler, generating steam to run conventional electrical turbines. Unfortunately, at our current level of technology, both of these systems are prohibitively expensive to construct. However, because of the dwindling supply of fossil fuels and increasing concern over the pollution produced by conventional and nuclear power plants, scientists are constantly working on a viable way to harness the clean and endless supply of energy provided by our sun.

Hospital

A city with a Hospital can grow beyond population 12. You must have a population of 7 or higher to build a hospital.

Hospitals are institutions that focus on the diagnosis and treatment of disease and trauma. While dispensing these services, they also provide housing. With technological innovation in medicine, hospitals have increasingly become community hubs, expanding their role to include teaching and research. Throughout history a hospital's role has shifted from a place to secure the ill or insane, to one of hope and health.

Lab

The Research Lab increases scientific research by 50%.
This is in addition to any benefits from a library and/or university. A University is required to build a Research Lab.

Historically, libraries and universities have acted as the primary centers of research for new ideas and technologies. The growth of private industry in the Modern Age has also given birth to hundreds of privately owned research facilities. These private laboratories, usually dedicated to research in a single field related to their founding company, have made tremendous advances in many fields including physics, biology, chemistry, and medicine. The growth of privately-funded research has vastly increased the speed at which mankind achieves new advances in science and technology.

Mass_Transit_System

The Mass Transit System reduces pollution caused by population.

Within a few decades of the invention of the automobile, the horse-drawn carriage disappeared from city streets. Along with all the advantages offered by the automobile, this new means of transportation quickly became a significant source of air pollution. As larger cities became more crowded, the number of cars increased, making travel difficult and adding to the pollution problem as automobile traffic clogged the streets. The development of mass transit systems, including busses, trolleys, subways, and light rail, led to a reduction in traffic and, as a result, a reduction in air pollution.

SAM_Missile_Battery

SAM Missile Batteries attack enemy air units that attempt to attack the SAM site's city.

The use of airplanes in warfare began in earnest during World War I. By the end of World War II, the use of fighter aircraft and bombers was commonplace and the importance of air warfare continued to grow, as did the importance of effective anti-aircraft defenses. During the 1950s, the refinement of rocket technology allowed for the construction of compact missiles which were used to deliver explosive warheads to targets swiftly and accurately. Batteries of surface-to-air missiles, or SAMs, were built to protect cities and ground installations against airborne attacks. The long range and high accuracy of SAM Missile Batteries provided a much more effective defense than the anti-aircraft guns of World War II.

Coastal_Fortress

A Coastal Fortress gives the city a naval bombardment defense of eight.
The fortress automatically bombards passing enemy ships.

The construction of defensive structures such as city walls and fortified castles dates back to ancient times. City walls were designed primarily to repel an attack launched by ground-based forces, and they performed adequately in such a situation. However, coastal cities were also vulnerable to attack from sea bombardments, since even a city wall left sea ports relatively unprotected. The best way to protect the port was to keep the enemy out of range of the city. This was accomplished by constructing fortresses to cover the approach to the city. These coastal fortresses, built at the mouth of the city's harbor or on barrier islands, would hold enemy vessels at bay, turning away or thinning out the attacking force and minimizing damage to the city's port.

Harbor

Cities with a Harbor produce veteran naval units instead of regulars.
Coastal, sea, and ocean squares produce one extra food.
A Harbor is a link in the trade network, allowing luxuries and strategic resources to be traded to other Harbors.
A city with a Harbor can be used to upgrade naval units.

Just because a city is built in a coastal region doesn't guarantee that the city is readily accessible by ship. In order for a port city to establish a steady trade, fishing, or other shipping industry, the city must have a harbor. A harbor is a protected body of water that opens into an ocean or lake that shelters ships from waves and high winds. Although some coastal cities are established in areas where a natural harbor exists, most seaports are forced either to improve the existing natural harbor, or to build a man-made harbor to shelter ships and provide channels deep enough to accommodate large vessels.

Offshore_Platform

An Offshore Platform causes all worked coastal, sea, and ocean squares to produce one shield.

Mankind's dependence on wood and coal as a main source of fuel ended when the first commercial oil well went into production in Pennsylvania in 1859. Crude oil could be refined into many different byproducts, and soon replaced wood and coal in many parts of the world. The growing dependence on oil caused the petroleum industry to grow rapidly and wells were drilled all over the world. Most wells were initially drilled on land, but after World War II it was found that many of the largest oil deposits could be found below the sea floor. Shallow water drilling from platforms supported by pylons resting on the seabed proved very successful. Today, large floating platforms can drill for oil at water depths of more than 3300 feet.

Airport

A city with an Airport produces veteran air units instead of regulars.
An Airport is a link in the trade network, allowing luxuries and strategic resources to be traded to other Airports.
A city with an Airport can be used to upgrade air units and airlift land units.

Since the middle of the 20th century, the airplane has been one of the chief means of long-distance transport in the world. Nearly every major metropolitan area today has at least one airport, with facilities to handle passengers and ticketing, as well as facilities for refueling and repairing the aircraft that land there. Beginning in the 1940s, the growing role of airplanes as combat vehicles led to the widespread construction of military air bases. Nearly 400 of these facilities in the U.S. alone act as bases and maintenance facilities for aircraft assigned to all branches of the military.

Wealth

Wealth causes shields to be converted to gold at a ratio of four to one.
When your civilization learns Economics the ratio is reduced to two to one.

Manufactured goods can provide an excellent source of income. Cities throughout time have become manufacturing centers of one sort or another, trading the goods and services generated within by its artisans and craftsmen. Modern manufacturing operations currently employ all sorts of workers, from laborers to managers to executives, and are the primary driving forces of many cities' and nations' economies.

Civil_Defense

Civil Defense can be built in any size settlement and provides a 50% defensive bonus to units defending in the town. Civil Defense can only be built in a city that has a barracks.

An active Civil Defense plan in times of war reduces loss of life and property resulting from enemy actions. During the Second World War the threat of aerial attack on cities was sufficient enough that many cities implemented organized civil defense strategies. Citizens were trained in fire fighting, rescue, medical first-aid and shelters were built to protect against bombing raids and other attacks. Other tactics included power blackouts that significantly reduced the glow of city lights, typically used as guides by enemy pilots in bombing campaigns. The introduction of nuclear weapons, capable of destroying entire metropolitan areas, caused radical changes in how civil defense is now approached, including: plans for mass evacuation, and prolonged residence in shelters.

Stock_Exchange

Stock Exchange provides a 50% tax output for the city it is constructed in. The Stock Exchange can only be built in a city that has a bank.

The stock exchange is an organized market which specializes in the sale and purchase of securities such as shares, stocks, and bonds. In the most developed capitalist countries, the stock exchange functions as a ready market for securities, encouraging people to channel their savings into corporate investments. In addition, the stock exchange acts as a pricing mechanism, determining prices that reflect the true investment value of a company's stock. The membership requirements of exchanges vary mainly with respect to the number of members, the degree of bank participation, the rigor of the eligibility requirements, and the degree to which government participates in their management.

Commercial_Dock

A Commercial Dock causes the city it is in to produce one extra Commerce in every water square that already produces one. A Commercial Dock can only be bult in coastal cities. A Commercial Dock can only be built in a city that has a harbor.

Free-market freighters carry a variety of cargoes, between numerous ports. In many instances, the services of these ships are matched with cargoes of brokers who meet on a trading floor in an environment analogous to a stock exchange or a commodities exchange. In times of low freight rates, a broker representing cargo interests may charter a ship for a future date, while having no cargo in prospect but expecting to resell the contract when the rates rise. Most of the world's chartering business is carried out in the Baltic Mercantile and Shipping Exchange, commonly known as the "Baltic Exchange", located in London. Other exchanges, especially for special cargoes, are in operation as well. A large part of the immense world oil transportation business, for example, is chartered by brokers who are based in many different ports.

SPACESHIP COMPONENTS

SS_Thrusters

One of ten components of the spaceship, which is used to achieve the Space Race victory type.

The massive Thrusters are, much like the Engine, designed to function in a myriad of ways. Designed in stages like the Engines, the Thrusters channel the exhaust used to propel the Space Ship through all of its phases of travel. In the initial phase, the external booster rockets channel their fuel through the Thrusters array until they run out of fuel, at which point they are jettisoned. After that, the powerful electromagnets built into the Thrusters help accelerate the charged particles of the ion drive to near the speed of light, providing a great deal of thrust for the Space Ship. Finally, in the last stages of travel, the Thrusters are responsible for maneuvering the Space Ship into the planet's gravity well and providing a counter thrust to slow the vessel to a manageable velocity to settle into a geo-synchronous orbit. In order to fulfill all of these functions, the Thrusters array had to be capable of the ultra-sensitive duty of accelerating high energy ions as well as be able to handle the hundreds of thousands of pounds of thrust produced by the solid fuel boosters. The engineers who designed the Thrusters were able to fulfill both of these functions as well as making them articulated to allow for maneuverability that is remarkable considering the mass and projected velocities of the craft.

SS_Cockpit

One of ten components of the spaceship, which is used to achieve the Space RaceVictory> victory type.

The command and control center of the Space Ship, the Cockpit component is the brain of the vessel. Ergonomically designed for the comfort of the pilots, the Cockpit holds all of the advanced navigation and systems control computers necessary for interstellar travel and interplanetary colonization as well as providing for all of the long-term necessities of its occupants. A fully encased component, the Cockpit has no unshielded area, completely encasing the occupants in a protective shell of titanium, ceramic, and an electromagnetic repulsion system to shed unwanted radiation. It utilizes the latest in holographic technology for star chart navigation, heads up displays for a 360 degree range of vision around the Space Ship, and the most advanced sensors available for collision detection and avoidance. The crowning jewel of the Cockpit component, however, is the advanced CAM Computer System, an artificial intelligence system designed to evaluate the potential dangers of deep space flight that may be encountered in the regions that no human has ever before penetrated. The CAM System continually monitors radiation fields and particle positions, judging the best way to deal with any potential threat and alerting the pilots in case of an emergency. The CAM system also helps keep the pilots entertained, having full access to the libraries of the Planetary Party lounge and being the most advanced Chess computer in the known galaxy.

SS_Landing_Docking_Bay

One of ten components of the spaceship, which is used to achieve the Space Race victory type.

Built entirely in space and for space travel, the Space Ship is a marvel of human technology. The Docking Bay module allows for the transfer of personnel and materials both during the initial loading of the Space Ship as well as during its final orbit, during which it will be converted to a Space Station for the first phase of the colonization and terraforming process. The Docking Bay module also holds the RCV Manned Shuttle, the main travel and transit vehicle for the Space Ship occupants, as well as providing access for the engineers to the exterior of the Space Ship during space walks. The Docking Bay is in essence a large air lock with a door large enough to release the RCV, flanked by a pair of smaller air locks for transferal of small teams of individuals. The Docking Bay also has large magnetic locks, allowing the Space Ship to join to the International Space Station prior to its departure during the final phases of supply loading before launching from Earth's orbit for its interstellar trip.

SS_Engine

One of ten components of the spaceship, which is used to achieve the Space Race victory type.

The Space Ship Engine is actually a four part launch vehicle, designed to enable the Space Ship to complete its journey both within the high gravity space-time bends surrounding star systems and through the vast emptiness of deep space that separates our star from Alpha Centauri. Its first stage is the external booster rockets, which, much like the terrestrially launched shuttles of the late twentieth century, are solid fuel boosters and are jettisoned when they are no longer needed. They are crucial to build the initial impulse which will carry the Space Ship into Jupiter's gravity well, giving it the energy to slingshot to Uranus and then out into deep space. The second part to the Engine is the Space Ship's solar sail, which was designed both to use the radiation emitted from our sun and Jupiter for propulsion and to collect atomic particles for further future fuel and materials. The third part of the Engine array is the ion drive, which will harness both nuclear power and collected hydrogen to propel the craft through deep space, channeling high energy particles through the Thrusters. The fourth and most externally obvious component is the hydrogen solid fuel rocket, which will be used in the final phases of the Space Ship's travel to place it in orbit around Alpha Centauri's planetary system.

SS_Fuel_Cells

One of ten components of the spaceship, which is used to achieve the Space Race victory type.

Essentially designed around the concept of a controlled hydrogen bomb explosion, the Fuel Cells for the Space Ship are based around the hydrogen collection system of the solar sail. The electromagnetic and solar energy collected by the solar sail are converted to electricity, which is used to slowly build the free hydrogen collected into fuel, which is stored in the fuel cell. The fuel cells also contain small, controlled amounts of fissionable material, which is in turn used with the hydrogen core to start a nuclear reaction. These reactions, contained in the Fuel Cells, supply the high energy particles which are funneled and accelerated through the ion drive to boost the Space Ship in deep space travel. In the final stages of travel the Fuel Cells provide the necessary hydrogen, collected in transit, to power the solid fuel rocket. The entire process is controlled through powerful electromagnets which channel the energy and prevent the escape of excess energy which could produce a dangerous meltdown. One byproduct of this nuclear reaction is heat, which is absorbed in the Fuel Cell walls and converted to the electrical energy which powers the computers, Life Support Systems, and other essential functions.

SS_Life_Support_System

One of ten components of the spaceship, which is used to achieve the Space Race victory type.

Essential to the sustenance of human life are food, water, air, and heat, and the Life Support System provides all of these things. Recycling is the key to the Space Ship's Life Support System, and no organic component is left to waste in the vessel. Computers control the collection and recycling of waste, which is injected into large vats of algae which consume the waste or processed into fertilizer for the Space Ship hydroponics garden. Both the algae and the garden provide food and oxygen for the colonists as well as for their livestock, which consist of fish, shrimp, and a particularly hearty (and tasty) breed of Peruvian mountain llama. Extra oxygen is processed in the air filtration system, which electrically divides water into hydrogen and oxygen molecules and separates them for oxygen and fuel uses. Excess heat produced by the Fuel Cells is also absorbed into steam pipes, which are used to keep the interior of the vessel warm and to separate pure water out of waste water to a 99.44% purity. Extraplanetary travel has never before been attempted on this scale, and the Life Support System has been carefully crafted to provide indefinitely for the needs of the colonists as well as giving them a basis for redeveloping a food chain on the eventual planet of colonization.

SS_Stasis_Chamber

One of ten components of the spaceship, which is used to achieve the Space Race victory type.

With a journey predicted to take decades, if not centuries, one of the most important considerations of the engineers was the aging of the crew. Recent advances in cryogenics and chemical therapy have enabled scientists to chemically slow the metabolic process to a virtual standstill, which enables the scientists to then deep freeze the body without harm. Sensors regulate the zero-oxygen environment to ensure that the colonists will be kept as safe as possible, and a special warming system utilizing broad spectrum electromagnetic radiation is used to quickly and safely restore warmth to the body. The radiation also has the effect of breaking down the chemical agents that slow the colonists' metabolism, making them able to be thawed out in a matter of seconds and fully aware in a little over a minute. This is essential to the survival of the craft in a situation in which the computer is unable to determine a course of action and a pilot or navigator must be roused to assess the danger, or in a situation in which a technician must be roused to effect repairs. This system has been used very effectively in tests on pigs and monkeys, and it has been shown that such animals in deep cryogenic sleep have been able to be roused after three years with absolutely no visible side effects. A couple of military volunteers have also been frozen to test the system, but only for a matter of weeks. Although scientists have not yet tested the effects of long-term freezing on human beings, they are completely confident that there will not be any problems with the Stasis Chamber on the Space Ship. Completely confident.

SS_Storage_Supply

One of ten components of the spaceship, which is used to achieve the Space Race victory type.

With a journey on which so much is dependent, including the future survival of humanity in the stars, many preparations have been made to insure the survival of the crew both on the journey and once the final destination has been reached. The large Storage/Supply module fulfills many functions for the colonists, all of which are considered vital for the perpetuation of life on distant planets. The first and most obvious function that it fulfills is the storage of raw materials, including essential metals and elements which may not be in such plentiful supply in the further reaches of the galaxy. In addition to the non-organic elements stored there are also complex amino acid chains stored for eventual use to ensure the survival of organic material in the transition period during which the planet is being terraformed. Perhaps more important, though, is the storage of the terraforming machines and vehicles which are expected to be necessary once a distant planet is reached. They will be used not only to attempt terraforming the planet, but also to build the initial habitat of the colonists and mine the planet's resources for use. The most important part of the Storage/Supply unit, in the eyes of many scientists, is Project: ARK. A catalogue and series of samples of over 150 million species are included, cryogenically frozen and preserved to rebuild as much of Earth's plant and animal kingdom by the genetic engineers in transit with the Space Ship.

SS_Planetary_Party_Lounge

One of ten components of the spaceship, which is used to achieve the Space Race victory type.

Described as the most expensive discotheque and museum gallery ever made, the Planetary Party Lounge is the ultimate in terrestrial entertainment. With a full copy of the Library of the National Archives, including all human data able to be put on disk, the Planetary Party Lounge computers allow the colonists to read books, play video games, holographically browse art museums, and sample every existing bit of human culture from the most sublime to the least savory. Holographic instructional videos exist on all manners of craft and skill, from woodcarving to belly dancing, to help keep cultural traditions alive and archived for future generations of colonists. The finest entertainers from around the world have been recruited to accompany the colonists and keep them happy in their journey to the next star system, and professional masseuses and physical therapists are on hand to see to the pleasures of the body. But the center of social life on board the Space Ship is bound to be the 13 tiered central lounge, boasting a quaint rural pub, a bustling casino, a hip disco, an auditorium and concert hall, a full featured gymnasium with hot tub and swimming pool, and a number of restaurants, both large and small. With so much to do, the colonists and crew aren't likely to want to get back into their Stasis Chambers!

SS_Exterior_Casing

One of ten components of the spaceship, which is used to achieve the Space Race victory type.

Although humankind has mastered space flight, the concept of interstellar and deep space travel presents many new problems to engineers and physicists. The Exterior Casing of the Space Ship is itself a technological marvel. Designed around a composite system of layered ceramic, zero-gee manufactured aluminum-titanium alloy, and high density polymers, the Exterior Casing is made to withstand both the dangers of debris within star systems and of radiation throughout its travel. Built into the Exterior Casing is also a complex web of electric wiring, capable of carrying a very high positive or negative electromagnetic charge, providing a shield from radiation and literally funneling electromagnetic energy and space borne hydrogen dust into the solar sail where it can be collected and used for further fuel. It is also designed with multiple levels of sensors designed to collect scientific data and to give a clear picture to the navigational computer and to the pilots of what is going on outside of the vehicle. Although this composite design for an Exterior Casing is expensive, the protection and potential scientific information that it affords is well worth the cost of manufacture.

ADVANCES

Bronze_Working

Scientific Civilizations start the game with Bronze Working.

Evidence of the use of bronze, an alloy of copper and tin, dates back to Thailand in 4500 BC. Several hundred years later, bronze working was discovered in the Middle East. Artifacts from this period show that bronze was initially used for decorative purposes only. This is because tin was not readily available. It wasn't until approximately 2000 BC, when tin was regularly imported from neighboring regions, that bronze replaced copper in the construction of larger items. Bronze was harder and less brittle than copper, and it held a sharper edge. Tools, weapons, and armor made from bronze were also cheaper to produce and more durable. The period of time when bronze was the metal of choice for such items was known as the Bronze Age. The Bronze Age lasted until iron working became prevalent in approximately 1200 BC.

Masonry

New Ability Workers can build outposts.

Industrious Civilizations start the game with Masonry.

The early dwellings of most tribal cultures were built of materials that were readily available and easy to work with, such as bricks of clay and mud. As tribes gave up their nomadic ways and settled the first cities, they soon found that they had a need for more permanent and durable structures. The skill of masonry was developed to fill this need. The earliest stone structures consisted of little more than rocks that were stacked atop one another to form crude walls. Artisans soon began to square off the rocks, forming them into regular shapes and stacking them. These early examples of masonry used no mortar; the weight of the stacked stones provided overall strength and stability. Without the use of mortar and knowledge of architectural techniques, masonry was used primarily for simple structures such as fortifications. However, some examples of early masonry are quite spectacular, including the Great Pyramids in Egypt, which are still standing after thousands of years.

Alphabet

Commercial Civilizations and Seafaring Civilizations start the game with the Alphabet. If a civilization is both commercial and seafaring, it receives Pottery as its second tech advance.

The ancestors of modern alphabets were the iconographic and ideographic symbols developed by ancient man, such as cuneiform and hieroglyphics. The first known alphabet, a combination of a number of early pictographic symbols known as North Semitic, was developed between 1700 and 1500 BC. Four other alphabets - South Semitic, Canaanite, Aramaic, and Greek - had evolved from the North Semitic alphabet by 1000 BC. The Roman alphabet, used by all the languages of Western Europe including English, was derived from the Greek alphabet sometime after 500 BC. The Roman alphabet became one of the most widespread due to the extensive use of the Latin language during the reign of the Roman Empire. The development of alphabets was significant in the development of advanced civilizations because it allowed history and ideas to be written down, rather than memorized and passed along orally.

Pottery

Expansionist Civilizations and Agricultural Civilizations start the game with Pottery. If a civilization is both expansionist and agricultural, it receives Masonry as its second tech advance.

The invention of pottery was essential to the development of agricultural societies. To get the most out of seasonal crops and domesticated animals, a tribe needed sturdy, waterproof containers in which to store and protect surplus food. The discovery of the properties of clay, and the invention of the kiln and the potter's wheel made it possible to build such containers. The earliest examples of Western pottery date back to as early as 6500 BC. Most of the examples from this period were strictly utilitarian. Although use continued to be primarily practical, decorative pottery soon became a ritualistic and aesthetic art form in cultures all over the world. Some of the most impressive examples of artistic pottery comes from the pre-Columbian cultures of South America, and from the Ming dynasty in 14th century China.

The_Wheel

New Resource Horses appear on the map.

Some Militaristic Civilizations start the game with The Wheel.

The invention of the wheel represented a major turning point in human civilization. The first wheels, disks carved from solid wood, may have been built as early as 3500 BC. The earliest use of this device was the potter's wheel, used to spin and shape clay pottery. It was not long before the true potential of the wheel was discovered, and wheeled carts soon replaced the sledge as a means of transportation. Rapid developments, such as wheels consisting of a ring with radial spokes, made the wheel even more practical by reducing its weight. By using the wheel, mankind gained the ability to work more efficiently and travel more quickly. Besides its use in transportation, the wheel went on to become the basic principle behind almost every mechanical device.

Warrior_Code

Some Militaristic Civilizations start the game with Warrior Code.

The Samurai of feudal Japan lived by a doctrine known as "Bushido", or "the way of the warrior". This code of behavior stressed such virtues as loyalty, courage, and politeness. The honor of the warrior could only be maintained if the rules of the code were followed. A similar code of behavior known as chivalry was later developed under the feudal system in medieval Europe. Although the strict adherence to both Bushido and chivalry were abandoned along with the feudal system in the 1800s, certain principals of discipline and behavior inherent in these systems can still be found in the military today.

Ceremonial_Burial

Religious Civilizations start the game with Ceremonial Burial.

Groping for an explanation of the world around them, the earliest humans developed the first concepts of religion. Gradually, rites of worship grew to include sacrifices, ceremonies, vigils, symbology, sacred items, and prayer. One significant step in the advance of worship was the ceremonial burial, often a ritual preparation of the deceased's body for the afterlife his or her culture anticipated. The remains of ceremonial burials offer some of the most detailed information about past civilizations.

Iron_Working

New Resource Iron deposits appear on the map.

Some examples of iron ornamentation date back to 4000 BC, but the use of iron for tools, weapons, and other practical purposes did not become common until much later. Prior to this time, bronze was the most widely used metal for such purposes. Although the term "Iron Age" denotes a period of time starting around 1000 BC, iron replaced bronze as the metal of choice at different times in different places. Iron is more common than copper and tin, the component metals of bronze, but iron is seldom found in a free state; it is most commonly found mixed with other minerals and elements. In order to be used, the iron must be separated from the ore. Once this technique was developed, and forges hot enough to melt the iron were developed, iron working became commonplace. Worked iron was harder, less brittle, and could hold a much sharper edge than bronze. Iron has remained an important metal throughout history, and is one of the major components in the production of steel.

Writing

New Ability Can build Embassies.
Diplomatic Agreements Can now negotiate military alliance.

The development of writing is considered one of the most important advances of civilization. The earliest forms of writing were simple symbols and marks, used to keep accounts and inventories. Some cultures developed pictographic symbols to tell stories and record events. Eventually, complete systems of writing were developed, capable of conveying any thought that could be expressed orally. At this point, scribes replaced the oral historian as the chief keepers of records. Writing allowed the presentation of information in a form that could be reliably transmitted from person to person and made it possible for ideas, history, and knowledge to be stored permanently and passed between cultures more reliably than through oral recitation.

Mysticism

People of the ancient world were fascinated and awed by the forces of nature surrounding them. Earthquakes, storms and other phenomena were generally regarded as signs from heaven. Individuals and groups arose to formulate explanations for these events, and pass the knowledge along to the tribe. The priests and priestesses of mysticism, who were often called oracles, claimed union with the divine through meditation and trance-like contemplation. Primitive mysticism offered mankind the first, tenuous links with the powers that shaped their world, and represented the first move toward the organized polytheistic and monotheistic religions to come.

Mathematics

Rudimentary arithmetic was purely quantitative, used to keep track of quantities and measurements in trade. Building on this fundamental base, ancient civilizations began to formulate more complex mathematical concepts. As early as 1800 BC, the Egyptians had developed a system for working with fractional numbers and simple algebraic problems. They also formulated geometric formulae for finding area and volume, and came up with a constant for determining the area of a circle that was very close to the value of pi. By about the 5th century BC, the mathematicians of Greece had greatly contributed to both geometry and algebra. Around the same time, advanced mathematics was applied to other sciences and fields of study such as astronomy and mechanics. One of the earliest applications of mathematical principles was in the construction of complex weaponry such as the catapult.

Philosophy

Bonus Tech The first civilization to research this tech is awarded a free tech.

The word "philosophy" comes from a Greek term meaning "love of wisdom." In ancient Greece, literacy and an interest in the natural world were common in a burgeoning upper class. In their leisure time, these people contemplated principles of thinking and being, logic and mathematics, and the natures of reality and existence. In ancient times, the study of philosophy was indistinguishable from the study of science, and many of the theories formulated by the early philosophers became the basis for studies in the fields of astronomy, medicine, chemistry, and physics. The teachings and writings of the ancient philosophers of Greece and the Orient also, in part, laid the groundwork for many of the world's oldest organized religions.

Code_of_Laws

The earliest tribal civilizations were bonded together by mutual needs and beliefs. A tribal chieftain, who acted as an advisor and enforcer of the will of the gods, ruled these groups. No formal laws existed in these early cultures, but fear of the gods and a sense of tribal customs and morality kept order in the tribe. As societies became larger and more diverse, the need arose for established rules of conduct. The earliest known codes of laws existed in Babylon, India, and Palestine. The Twelve Tables of Rome, written in 500 BC, and its successors such as the Justinian Code, were the first codes of law to distinguish between public law, which involves the state, and private law, which concerns disputes between citizens. Roman law was the first formalized written system of laws, and went on to influence many of the legal systems of the modern world.

Literature

The art of writing as literature, bodies of works written thematically, is at least as old in the western world as Greek culture. Surviving records of Babylonian culture refer to at least two epic tales, which infers that literature as a comprehensive body is much older, but neither survive to this day. The development of a living body of literature became indicative of an advanced culture and are always correlated with advances in science, philosophy, theology, and art. Literature in the western world has survived in the forms that the Greeks and Romans established, but the expense and effort of hand copying texts ensured that only the wealthy had access to literate education. Libraries, which served as storehouses of these bodies of text, also became centers for education and the proliferation of ideas. Unfortunately the loss of many such libraries, such as the Great Library of Alexandria in a civil war in the 3rd century AD, also heralded the loss of many of these irreplaceable texts. It wasn't until the invention of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg that books were printed rather than transcribed. That single advance in literature opened the field up to those other than monks and the wealthy, birthing a proliferation of literature that spread across the world.

Map_Making

New Ability Can now negotiate right of passage agreements.

Maps provide a diagrammatic representation of an area, showing terrain features, cities, and other landmarks. The earliest maps were etched clay tablets charting Babylonian lands for the purposes of taxation. Around the same time, the Chinese produced regional maps drawn on silk cloth. In between 600 and 200 BC, the Greeks produced several maps of the known world, including the first map showing a primitive system of latitude and longitude. Traders and merchants primarily used these early maps. Seamen, who often set their courses based only on the tales brought back by previous voyagers, benefited most from the science of map making.

Horseback_Riding

Tribesmen on the Asian steppes first domesticated the horse for transportation and warfare. These tribesmen used their superior mobility and speed to overwhelm the proto-civilizations just rising in southeast Europe and the Middle East. In approximately 2000 BC, domestic horses were introduced into Babylonia. Within the next several centuries, horses had spread throughout much of Europe and northern Africa. It was not long before nearly every civilization had put horses to work as field animals and as a means of transportation. Horses also went on to play an important role in the military conflicts of nearly every civilization in the world, both as mounts for horsemen and cavalry, and as draft animals for pulling war chariots and heavy weapons into battle.

Polytheism

Polytheism is the belief that the world and the environment is ruled or controlled by a number of different gods or divinities. Many ancient religions were polytheistic, notably those of the Egyptians, the Greeks, the Norse, and the Romans. Often, polytheistic religions have different gods for each force of nature and earthly phenomenon; for instance: a sun god, a moon god, a god of thunder, a god of the forests, and so forth. The reason for such diversity in divine beings probably stems from ancient civilizations attempting to find explanations for natural events they could not understand.

Currency

As cities grew, their internal economies became more complicated. People became specialists, some primarily producing grain, some pottery, some bricks, etc. A system of barter developed, so that one individual's wares and services could be exchanged for those of another. Gold and silver were widely used in such transactions, but the pieces needed to be weighed and tested for purity each time they changed hands. In 600 BC, the Lydians found a way around this problem. They began the practice of shaping electrum, an alloy of gold and silver, into pieces of predetermined weight and purity, stamped with an official symbol. This idea caught on, and within 50 years all the important trading centers of the world had adopted similar practices. The widespread use of currency created universal standards of value, allowing people from various societies to conduct business almost anywhere without being forced to bring along bulky goods for trade and barter.

The_Republic

The republic is a system of government in which the citizens appoint, by popular vote, a head of state and officials to represent the views of the general public. The concept of the republic first appeared in ancient Rome, where local provinces sent elected representatives to the Senate, which governed all Roman lands. Both the head of state and the local representatives in a republic are elected; no one is granted a position by birth or divine right. Republican governments are similar in some ways to democracies, in that they offer a great deal of personal, financial, and political freedom to their citizens. The main difference between the two systems is that a true democracy allows the participation of every voting citizen in any and all political matters, whereas in a republic, a body of elected officials represents the views and opinions of the people. Although an effective system, personal agendas of political representatives might act to decrease the effectiveness in representing the views of the people. Due to human nature, corruption is fairly common in a republican government.

Monarchy

Rule by monarchy developed as a logical extension of the absolute rule of tribal chieftains. Many of the earliest monarchs, such as those in ancient Egypt, claimed that they ruled by divine right. In the spread of European monarchy during the Middle Ages, however, rulership was generally conveyed upon a leader who could most effectively raise and command an army. Monarchies are dynastic, with rule of the country passing to the eldest son when the king dies or retires. Monarchs had absolute rule over their subjects, severely limiting the personal and economic freedom of all citizens except for nobility and the rich upper class. Although monarchies ruled most of Europe for centuries, the unhappiness of lower-class citizens eventually grew intolerable, causing several major revolutions. By the mid-18th century, the power of the European monarchs had been severely limited, paving the way for participatory systems of government.

Construction

New Ability Workers can build fortresses and barricades.

The development of masonry led to a widespread use of stone in simple structures such as fortifications, but due to the weight and cumbersome nature of stone blocks, more complex structures had to be made of simpler materials. The need for the widespread use of more durable and permanent materials eventually became apparent, forcing ancient artisans to learn new techniques. The biggest problem to overcome was finding a stable way to span the distance between two upright columns or walls using stone blocks. To solve this problem, fundamental architectural elements such as the arch and vault evolved. These basic construction techniques allowed larger and more elaborate buildings to be created from stone and mortar. Many of the buildings erected by these early builders are still standing, a testament to the sound construction techniques employed in their construction.

Monotheism

Monotheism is the belief that there is only one God. Perhaps the oldest monotheistic religion is Judaism. The original Israelites were polytheistic in a sense, since they did not deny the existence of other gods in addition to their own. However, after being exiled to Babylonia in 586 BC, the Judeans turned to a truly monotheistic religion, where the God of Israel was seen as the universal God ruling the destiny of all nations. The scriptures of Judaism became part of the teachings of the two most widespread monotheistic religions, Christianity and Islam. More developed than earlier polytheistic beliefs, monotheistic religions tend to encompass and structure the entire lifestyles of the people who practice them.

Feudalism

In the unsettled times following the collapse of Charlemagne's Frankish empire, a new social and political system arose in Europe called feudalism. Derived from the concept of monarchy, feudalism was a hierarchical system in which each descending stratum owed allegiance to those above. The king, whose authority was second only to God, granted tracts of land, or fiefs, to his barons. The barons might then grant smaller estates to knights, who swore to protect and serve the baron. The knights, in turn, might then grant fractions of their fiefs to subordinates who would serve the knights. At the bottom of the feudal pyramid were the serfs, who could not own land, and acted essentially as slave laborers who worked the land for their masters. Feudalism began to decline in the 13th century, when standing armies and mercenaries began to fulfill the protective role once served by the vassals and knights.

Engineering

New Ability Workers can now Plant Forests.
New Ability Roads now bridge rivers.

Engineering is the application of scientific and mathematical principles to the design and/or manufacture of theoretical systems and physical objects. Prior to the mid-18th century, military engineers carried out all engineering functions. Their work involved the construction of roads, bridges, fortifications, and the performance of other duties relating to the military. In the late 18th century, civil engineers took over all non-military engineering functions. Other fields of engineering prior to the 20th century included mining engineers, who designed mines and methods of mining, and mechanical engineers, who dealt with the design and construction of machinery. As new technologies developed, new fields of engineering developed along with them. Today, there are engineers specifically trained in nearly every field, from electronics and computers to chemistry and atomics.

Theology

Theology is the study of God and religious truth. Theologians take a more or less scientific approach to questions of religion, deeply studying the underlying meaning of scriptures and religious teachings rather than "taking them on faith". Theological seminaries teach courses of study in theology to prepare people as priests and clergymen. Many of the earliest colleges of the western world were originally established for this purpose. Theological study helped to remove some of the superstitions that had surrounded religion for so long, and brought religious study into a more enlightened age.

Chivalry

Chivalry was a code of rules governing the behavior of an aristocratic class of warriors known as knights. First appearing in the 12th century, the rules of chivalry governed not only the knights' behavior in battle, but in their personal lives as well. The chief chivalric virtues of piety, honor, valor, courtesy, chastity, and loyalty represented a fusion of Christian and military morality. A similar code of behavior known as "Bushido" or "the way of the warrior" governed the behavior of the samurai warriors of ancient Japan. Although the strict practice of chivalry had all but disappeared by the 15th century, the ideals of chivalric behavior became the basis for what is now considered to be gentlemanly conduct.

Invention

The contrivance of a previously unknown device, method, or process, which can, in turn, be used to accomplish an objective in a way thought to be impossible, is known as invention. Essentially, inventiveness is the ability to take one or more newly discovered concepts and find a way to put them to practical use. The earliest inventions of mankind date back to ancient stone and metal tools used for hunting, digging, and other everyday tasks. After writing allowed the ideas of various civilizations to be exchanged and studied, mankind's inventions became increasingly more useful and innovative. Most inventions are geared toward improving or simplifying human existence in some way. Often, inventions themselves make it possible to make new discoveries, which then go on to inspire better and more innovative inventions.

Printing_Press

New Ability Can now trade communications between civilizations.

The principle behind printing is not very complicated, but immense amounts of complexity are invested in the mass production of printed documents. Invented by Johannes Gutenberg in the mid-15th century, the early printing presses used a flat tray of inked type. Once paper was placed over the type, a surface was applied and the ink was pressed into the paper. While an improvement over the traditional duplication methods of the time (being meticulous hand-scribing of volumes), it was a slow and tedious process to use. Around 1800 the first cylinder press was created, followed by the large and immensely fast rotary presses. Today, computers have taken this ancient art out of the craftsman’s workshop and placed it on the desktop. Desktop publishing revolutionized the creation of printed documents, not only from the standpoint of speed and accuracy, but also by enabling anyone to mass-produce the printed word without investing the many years it takes to learn the trade.

Music_Theory

Music finds a comfortable parallel with that of human language. Much as language has words, sentences, and stories, music has tones, melodies, and songs. The theory of music emphasizes the elements from which music is composed. One such structure is the melody, which is a grouping of musical notes that combine into a basic, but immensely flexible structure. Another is the chord, which is two or more notes played simultaneously to create a harmony. The impact of music throughout history can be clearly seen, as both entertainment and an art.

Education

Education is the process of passing on the knowledge of previous generations to future ones. The impact of this simple process is not to be underestimated, and in a fundamental way permitted mankind to dominate the planet. Originally a privilege solely of males, it soon became a fundamental right in the United States. Schools of all types began to specialize in certain fields and/or student demographics, allowing people of all kinds the benefit of this wealth of information. Modern curriculums surprisingly cover many of the same subjects taught throughout history, such as literature, language, and mathematics.

Gunpowder

New Resource saltpeter deposits appear on map.

Gunpowder is a chemical mixture of saltpeter, sulfur, and charcoal. When ignited, it burns rapidly and explodes if contained to any degree. Gunpowder is believed to have been developed by the Chinese, who used it in fireworks as early as the 9th century, but it did not reach Europe until the 14th century. Europeans immediately saw the potential of this substance, and manufactured it for use in weapons as early as 1334. The discovery of gunpowder led to the invention of firearms, such as the musket, which led to the replacement of archers in most armies of the world by the late 1500s. Gunpowder marked one of the major technological turning points in military history; significantly changing the way wars were fought.

Banking

Many of the services performed by banks today can be traced back to medieval Europe. Certain families, such as the Medicis of Italy, were known for the banking duties they performed. These wealthy merchants pooled their surplus money into a bank, then loaned cash (with interest) to other commercial enterprises. The availability of this capital for investment made many new businesses possible, accelerating economic growth. The first modern banks were established in Europe during the late 1600s. The primary function of today's banking system is the granting of loans to consumers and businesses. In addition to loaning money and safeguarding deposits, banks also invest in government and private securities and bonds. Both the loan and investment functions of banks not only make profits for the bank itself, but also stimulate the economy by providing funds for business growth and consumer purchases.

Astronomy

New Ability Harbors can be connected by sea squares.
New Ability Naval units can safely traverse sea squares.

Astronomy originated as simple observation and recording of regular celestial movements for the purpose of time keeping and determining directional bearings. The ancient Greeks were among the first to study astronomy in detail. They described the use of stars for navigation at sea, and recorded the position of constellations during each season of the year for purposes of determining times for planting and harvesting. The Greek astronomer Aristarchus developed the theory that celestial motion could be explained by the fact that the Earth revolved on its axis once every 24 hours, and revolves around the sun along with the other planets. This theory was rejected at the time, only to be rediscovered nearly 2000 years later by Copernicus. These early students of astronomy compiled data that became the cornerstone for modern astronomical research.

Chemistry

The earliest practical use of chemical processes was by metal smiths of the ancient world. These artisans learned how to use heat to melt various naturally occurring metals together to form alloys such as bronze. Early manufacturers of cloth also used primitive chemical processes to set dyes. In the following centuries, chemical processes were studied through the pseudo-science of alchemy, which attempted to change base metals into gold. Although alchemists were, of course, unsuccessful, they did develop many valuable chemical processes as a result. The manuscripts produced by alchemists were studied by succeeding generations, and an effective knowledge of chemistry had been accumulated by the late 13th century. In the 17th century, the ideas of alchemy finally died out as an increasing body of true chemical knowledge was gained through experimental analysis, leading to the modern science of chemistry.

Democracy

Democracy is a ruling system where the citizens have a great deal of control over the actions of the government, either directly or through elected representatives. Democratic governments can be traced back to the city-states of ancient Greece and Rome. Citizens would gather in a public forum, and each one would have the opportunity to speak and vote on issues affecting the community. This direct democracy system was possible due to the relatively small populations of the city-states. Starting in the 17th century, the monarchs of Europe began to be stripped of their absolute power, and by the end of the 19th century the citizens had a strong voice in government in many European nations. Large populations made public forums impractical, so the people elected groups of representatives to carry their views to the ruling powers. Strictly speaking, this type of system more closely resembles a republican system rather than a true democracy. This type of representative democracy is considered the best governing system in the modern world because of the personal and economic freedom enjoyed by the citizens.

Economics

Wealth causes shields to be converted to gold at a ratio of four to one. When your civilization learns Economics the ratio is reduced to two to one.

The ideas of supply and demand, and philosophies concerning trade and the production and consumption of goods and services, are concepts that have existed since the dawn of mankind. As societies became more complex, however, people began to study these abstract concepts in a more formal way. The first recorded study of economics as a science, rather than a philosophical or political concept, was the book "The Wealth of Nations" by Scottish economist Adam Smith. This book represents the first attempt to fully analyze sources of income and the distribution of wealth. Smith's analysis of economics served as a guide by which many of the governmental economic policies of the present day were formed.

Navigation

New Ability Harbors can be connected by ocean squares.
New Ability Naval units can safely traverse ocean squares.
New Ability Can now trade world maps in diplomacy.

In the early days of seafaring, sailors operated solely through a process known as "piloting", in which the position and course of the ship was determined by referring to geographical landmarks. The need to stay in view of the shore severely limited the extent of sea voyages. Through experience, sailors learned to apply the science of astronomy to their profession, noting the positions and movement of particular stars. They realized that even when the shore was out of sight, they could steer by certain reliable stars. This crude, yet practical application of astronomy allowed the adventurous to sail into the unknown with a reasonable chance of finding their way. As a result, ship building technology quickly improved, producing larger, more stable ships designed for longer voyages.

Physics

Physics is the study of the many forms of matter and energy and the way they interact with themselves and each other. A number of ancient races made observations about certain aspects of physics, such as planetary motion, but were unable to develop theories as to the reasons for these motions. Some of the earliest applications of physics were by the Greek mathematician Archimedes, who applied physics to create such devices as levers and screws. It was not until the 17th century that experimental methods and scientific measuring devices led to a true understanding of many fundamental physical laws. Early scientists such as Johannes Kepler and Sir Isaac Newton began to disprove the theories of the ancient Greek philosophers and scientifically prove their theories concerning the laws of physics. Discoveries in physics rarely have direct applications, however they do provide a basic understanding of the laws governing the universe, thus forming the basis for practical advances in technology.

Metallurgy

Metallurgy is the study of the properties of metals and the methods used to separate metal deposits from metal-bearing ores. Through the course of history, artisans have switched the materials from which they constructed weapons and tools to harder, more durable metals as they were discovered. However, metallurgy as a science wasn't studied in earnest until the powers of Europe began to compete against one another in an attempt to design better and more effective weapons starting around the 14th century. Constant improvements in metallurgy led to the discovery of new metals and alloys that were stronger, lighter, and cheaper. As a result of this race for military dominance, Europeans produced some of the most advanced weaponry in the world during this time period.

Free_Artistry

The love of beauty seems a trait mankind was innately born with. When attempting to create things of beauty, and when done so skillfully, the product is art. From our ancient cave dwelling ancestors to our electronically amplified contemporaries, painting, sculpture and music have all played a pivotal role in the quality of human life. A division can be made between the fine arts and the useful arts (such as pottery making or weaving), though the process through which the artists labor remains similar. Today commercial art is increasingly demanding to be considered a serious art.

Theory_of_Gravity

In the 17th century, Sir Isaac Newton developed the law of universal gravitation. This law recognized that every mass in the universe exerts an attraction on every other mass. Newton postulated that gravity was a universal force that affected all matter. Newton's theory served to explain the forces of attraction between the Earth and nearby objects, as well as the forces that affect the motion of planets and other astronomical bodies. In the early 20th century, Albert Einstein's special theory of relativity led to a major reinterpretation and clarification of Newton's theory of gravity. Scientists now believe that gravity affects energy as well as matter, and that gravity is actually a fundamental warping of the fabric of space-time. Some theorize that the force of this warping is transmitted by as-yet-unobserved particles called gravitons.

Magnetism

New Ability Harbors can be connected by ocean squares.
New Ability Naval units can safely traverse ocean squares.

The ancient Greeks, Romans, and Chinese knew the phenomenon of magnetism. They observed that lodestone, an iron-bearing ore, attracted other iron. They also noted that pieces of iron that came into contact with lodestone gained magnetic properties as well. The electromagnetic force of attraction and repulsion between various substances is due to the motion of positively and negatively charged electrons. Every magnet has positive and negative sides, called poles. Poles with a like charge repel one another, and poles with opposite charges attract one another. The study of magnetic phenomena soon showed that a free-floating magnet aligns itself with the Earth's magnetic field, one pole pointing north, the other south. This was an important discovery, and led to the invention of the compass in the early 13th century. The use of the compass revolutionized sea travel by reducing the reliance on landmarks and stars for navigation.

Military_Tradition

With the fall of the feudal system in Europe and the creation of standing armies, a new military tradition was born. Organizing soldiers based on their skill, experience, and understanding of tactics rather than their position of birth, the armies of post feudal Europe were markedly different from their predecessors. This change in the position of warfare also necessitated a change in the definition of the soldier, and with this transformation also came a strict code of conduct based on the old ideals of chivalry. The life of a professional soldier came to appeal to many who saw it as a career filled with opportunity for advancement, and now ordinary citizens were able to distinguish themselves in any number of specialized positions in military conflict. The European military tradition arguably reached its highest point during the reign of Napoleon Bonaparte in France when, through military might, France gained control of the majority of European soil.

Nationalism

New Ability Can mobilize for war.
New Ability Can draft citizens.
New Ability Can create Police Officers.
New Diplomatic Agreements Can now negotiate mutual protection pact and trade embargo agreements.

Nationalism is the belief that the affairs of the nation are the primary concern of its citizens. A recent political phenomenon (the first major application taking place after the French Revolution), it has nonetheless become the overriding paradigm for modern world politics. It’s important to know that nationalism can come in a variety of forms, some permutations bearing little resemblance to each other. Many early nationalistic leaders preached the superiority of their country over all others. While this type isn’t extinct today (as evidenced by the ethnocentric nationalism in the former Yugoslavia), most promote national determinism. Sanctioned by the United Nations, this is the belief that each nation should be responsible for its own growth and independence.

Steam_Power

New Resource Coal appears on the map.
New Ability Workers can build Railroads.

The steam engine is a device that uses steam to generate power. Water, heated by burning fuel (usually coal or wood), turns to steam. The steam is contained in a chamber where it builds up pressure, causing a piston to move. The piston drives a turbine, the rotation of which produces power, which can be use for such purposes as producing motion or generating electricity. The early principles of this device were understood as early as the late 17th century, but it wasn't until 1769 that Scottish engineer James Watt patented a practical design for what was to become the basis for the modern steam engine. The invention of the steam engine led to a number of landmark developments, including the steam locomotive and the earliest examples of automobiles. Steam engines remained the chief means of motive power in the transportation industry until the invention of the more powerful and compact internal combustion engine. Steam turbines are still in use today in a number of applications including the generation of electrical power.

Medicine

Primitive man attributed the onset of serious disease as the influence of the gods, or possession by evil spirits. Over time, however, it was found that such "possessions" could be treated through the use of elixirs made from plant extracts. Methods were also developed to clean and treat wounds, and set fractured bones. The ancient Greeks established the first schools to teach medical sciences circa 500 BC. The texts produced by the students of these schools, most notably Hippocrates, who is considered the father of medicine, based his theories of the human body on observation and reasoning rather than supernatural intervention. Continued study of diseases over the years, combined with the dissection and study of the human body in the 13th century, pointed out flaws in early Greek theories, and led to more accurate medical texts based on detailed analysis rather than conjecture. By the 18th century, the same methods of analysis and observation used by scientists in other fields were applied to the study of medicine. This paved the way for the increasingly effective methods of treatment and surgery that have prevailed over the last 200 years.

Communism

Communism is a conceptualized system of government in which resources and production facilities are the property of the entire society rather than individuals. In a communist society, labor is shared equally as well, and the benefits of labor are distributed according to need. Under such a system, all people would be equal, without class stratification. Although the basic idea of communism has existed since the time of Plato, modern communism is identified with the system of government described by Karl Marx and Fredrich Engels in the "Communist Manifesto". They believed that capitalistic systems, in which the rich upper class prospered through the exploitation of the powerless lower class, were bound to destroy themselves. At this point, the poor would rebel against their former oppressors and form a classless society. This prophecy has never come true, and countries that have attempted to base their governments on communism have ultimately failed to achieve the utopia described by Marx and Engels.

Industrialization

Industrialization involves the use of machines to dramatically increase productivity. Production of goods became concentrated in factories, where the combination of specialization of labor and automation reduced labor costs and, ultimately, the cost of the final manufactured product to the consumers. Industrialization revolutionized living standards, both positively and negatively. The rapid growth of production industries and the reduced cost of production have led to the prosperity of some of the richest families in history. Industrialization has also led to the creation of a blue-collar working class. In newly industrialized nations, these workers, skilled only in their chosen trade, were often underpaid and forced to endure abominable working conditions.

Electricity

New Ability Workers can irrigate without fresh water.

Humans have witnessed the phenomenon of electricity in the forms of lightning, static electricity, and magnetism since the dawn of time. Electricity was not seriously studied, however, until the 17th century. Early electrical pioneers studied various electrical phenomena, and built devices both to generate and to measure electrical charges. In 1892 Hendrik Antoon Lorentz, a Dutch physicist, advanced the electron theory. This theory, which explains electricity as a reaction between positively and negatively charged electrons, formed the basis for modern electrical theory. Based on Lorentz's work, early engineers such as Thomas Edison pioneered methods allowing the widespread use of electricity as a power source.

Scientific_Method

Mankind has always pursued an understanding of the universe that surrounds them. The scientific method lays down the blueprints for transmuting a theory into scientific law. The first step is to identify a process or phenomenon and begin to gather information about it. From this data, the scientist forms a hypothesis about the workings of the process observed. They then proceed to run a series of experiments to gather additional information that substantiates or disproves their theory. If the theory can co-exist with the findings, it can then be called a scientific law. Which is not to say that it cannot be disproved, as many such laws have become false as technology and new ideas are brought to bear.

Sanitation

New Ability Disease from Floodplains is eliminated, and the effect of Plague is reduced.

The increased waste produced by growing populations over time eventually led to potential health hazards. It then became necessary to come up with systems to dispose of garbage and human waste in a sanitary manner. Plumbing systems designed to remove wastewater from dwellings and public buildings became commonplace, as did sewage plants which treated the wastewater before it was dumped into local waterways. Landfills were established, and garbage was collected for sanitary disposal in dumps and landfills a safe distance from the general population. These measures led to a healthier environment, and allowed for further population growth.

Espionage

New Ability Build an Intelligence Agency and you can conduct Espionage Missions.

As far back as 500 BC, the Chinese military strategist Sun Tzu stressed the importance of the gathering of covert information about one's enemy. Although every world government has strict laws and penalties to deal with spies, covert intelligence is an important political, technological, and military commodity. During times of war, covert operatives provide important information about enemy troop movements and weapons technology. Spies may also be called upon to perform acts of sabotage in order to delay or divert the enemy. In peacetime, organizations such as the CIA use operatives to keep track of potential political situations abroad. Spying is not limited to politics and war; industrial spies are often used to gain information about rival companies.

The_Corporation

As businesses grow, they often find it necessary to raise large amounts of operating capital in order to expand their operations beyond a certain point, or to meet operating expenses. In these cases, one option available is to form a corporation and "go public", or sell shares of the business to investors. This arrangement allows the business to expand rapidly, while spreading the risks of the expansion among many people, reducing individual risk. Corporations also have legal advantages such as the right to sue, and the limitation of liability for the corporation's debt to the amount originally invested by the owners. Corporations as legal entities have existed since ancient Rome, although the joint-stock company as it is known today didn't begin operating until sometime in the 16th century.

Refining

New Resource Oil appears on the map.

When the demand for oil-based fuels for lighting and other purposes began to soar in the 19th century, scientists began searching for a way to make use of crude oil. This research led to techniques in which crude oil was broken down, or refined, into a number of different fuels, including kerosene and gasoline. As consumer demand continued to increase, commercial refineries were set up to purify crude oil. The new petroleum products produced as a result of the development and perfection of the refining process led to the use of oil-based fuels in many consumer and industrial applications. These include the use of gasoline to power automobiles, and the use of oil for heating and for the generation of electrical power.

Steel

The iron alloys produced up until about the 14th century were made by heating a mixture of iron ore and charcoal in a forge, then pounding the molten metal to drive out the impurities or "slag". Occasionally, the iron mixture would absorb more carbon, creating steel rather than wrought iron. Because steel proved to be less brittle and more resistant to corrosion than iron, techniques were developed to produce steel. Blowing a coal derivative called coke through molten iron did this. Most modern steel making utilizes the "blast furnace", developed by Henry Bessemer in 1855, to accomplish this task on a large-scale basis. The strength and other qualities of steel make it the material of choice for warships, planes, and many other vehicles.

Atomic_Theory

Philosophers in ancient Greece were the first to use the term "atom" to describe the smallest possible bit of matter. They hypothesized that all things were made up of atoms, and could be theoretically broken down into atoms. The atom, however, was indestructible. Study of atomic theory proceeded slowly. Experimental scientists of the 16th and 17th centuries developed methods of analyzing gases, liquids, and solids to determine the individual elements of which they were composed. The founder of modern atomic theory was British chemist John Dalton. Dalton's experiments explained how atoms link together to form molecules. He also explained the nature of these chemical bonds, and performed a number of experiments concerning the formation of various chemical compounds.

Combustion

The development of internal combustion was a great advance of the Industrial Age. German engineer Nikolaus Otto built the forerunner of today’s internal combustion engine in 1876. Refinements on Otto's design over the next ten years led to more efficient and powerful engines. The internal combustion engine forever changed world transportation. Early automobiles utilizing steam engines had proven to be both underpowered and impractical, but the fuel efficiency and compact size of the internal combustion engine allowed the automotive industry to flourish. Several variations, including the diesel engine designed by Rudolf Christian Karl Diesel, went on to revolutionize propulsion in shipping and other transportation industries.

Mass_Production

The industrial revolution redefined the very concepts of manufacturing and changed the way goods were produced. One such concept was that of mass production, which utilized the benefits of machine made replaceable parts to their greatest advantage. In 1914 Henry Ford, the father of the assembly line, realized that by making a moving line on which automobiles moved and giving each person on the line a series of specialized tasks they would be able to make cars cheaply and more efficiently. This concept of mass production revolutionized the automotive industry. The time it took to turn out a Model T in the factory went from 728 minutes to 98 minutes; this time was eventually to drop to one Model T every 24 seconds. The idea quickly spread, and by the time America entered World War I in 1917 the assembly line had been adapted by all US military manufacturing plants and shipyards. Mass production techniques developed in the early 1900s transformed the American landscape from a rural population into an urban one, and changed all industrialized nations, for better or for worse, forever.

Replaceable_Parts

New Resource Rubber appears on the map.
New Ability Workers work twice as fast.
New Ability Can create Civil Engineers.

With the advent of machine manufacturing, craftsmen were able to set manufacturing to exacting specifications. One advantage of this was being able to manufacture complex objects, such as guns, in separate pieces. The benefit of this was realized when manufacturers replaced only the broken parts of the objects that they made rather than replacing or repairing the entire instrument. By setting machine manufacturing guidelines, manufacturers were able to make large quantities of the components of their products and then later assemble the finished product, increasing efficiency greatly. Replaceable parts revolutionized nearly every industry in the industrial age, paving the way for mass production and assembly line manufacture.

Flight

New Ability Workers can build airfields.

The idea of flight has tantalized humans since the dawn of time. Early investigations of flying machines date back to the 13th century. In the 16th century, Leonardo da Vinci proposed a number of inventions that eventually came to pass, including the propeller and the parachute. Throughout the 19th century, various engineers experimented successfully with gliders, and experiments with compressed air and steam engines attempted to produce self-powered flight with limited success. The key to success in powered flight was the invention of the internal combustion engine. Just after the turn of the 20th century, Orville and Wilbur Wright made the first four controlled, sustained human flights at Kitty Hawk, NC. The technology of flight advanced rapidly from this landmark event, and within a relatively few years, aircraft were circling the globe, safely delivering passengers and mail at record speeds.

Amphibious_Warfare

A combined land and sea attack, usually associated with the capture of a beachhead or coastal area, is known as amphibious warfare. First attempted by the ancient Persians during the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC, successful coordination of amphibious assaults are considered to be among the most complex military operations. When ship-mounted guns were developed, naval vessels would open fire on ground forces and gun emplacements while merchant ships were used to land troops and supplies. The first modern amphibious assault took place at Gallipoli during World War I. Poorly planned and executed, this assault failed, but served as an example of the need for perfect coordination of forces in this type of attack. As battlefield communications improved, and the range of ship-mounted weapons increased, amphibious warfare became increasingly successful, and played a vital role in World War II. Today, amphibious operations are augmented by fast, armored landing vehicles; hovercraft that are capable of moving troops to and across the beach; and airborne assistance from planes and helicopters.

Electronics

The field of electronics deals with the practical application and manipulation of electricity and electromagnetic phenomena. The invention of the vacuum tube in the early 20th century marked the beginning of modern electronics. The vacuum tube was capable of amplifying weak radio signals, allowing them to be transmitted over greater distances. Vacuum tubes also allowed music and voice to be superimposed onto radio waves for transmission. The early study of electronics revolutionized a number of fields, especially the field of communications. Because of the vacuum tube, the technology of radio communications was highly developed by World War II. After the war, electronics research continued to advance rapidly. Post-war advances include the earliest examples of digital computers and, eventually, transistors and integrated circuits: miniaturized replacements for the vacuum tube.

Motorized_Transportation

The earliest attempts at producing a self-propelled vehicle date back to the late 1770s. These early vehicles used bulky steam engines for power. Despite constant improvements, the steam engine ultimately proved impractical for small vehicles. The development of the internal combustion engine in the late 1800s provided a small but powerful replacement for steam engines, and was able to achieve much higher speeds. The first practical automobiles were developed in the late 19th century, by automotive pioneers in France, Germany, and the United States. By the 1920s, a number of automotive manufacturing companies were operating in the U.S., including Ford and General Motors. By 1980, more than 300 million cars and 85 million trucks were in operation throughout the world. The popularity of the automobile has led to massive improvements in the highway systems in most industrialized countries. Unfortunately, automobiles are also one of the primary sources of air pollution, and have resulted in an all time high demand for petrochemical fuels.

Advanced_Flight

New Ability Workers can build radar towers.

During World War II and in the years that followed, great leaps were made in the field of aviation. The military demands of the war necessitated the development of aircraft designed for long-range bombing, and for the transportation of troops and equipment. Although advances in aviation were made all over the world during this time, the Germans were particularly adept in the development of advanced flight technologies. In 1944, they developed the V-2, the first truly guided missile, capable of delivering 2000 pounds of explosives to targets nearly 200 miles away. The Germans also developed the Me 262, the first jet fighter plane, which was first used in 1945. Although both the V-2 and the Me 262 came too late to affect the outcome of World War II, both of these advances paved the way for the advanced flight technologies of today.

Radio

Prior to Guglielmo Marconi's invention of the radio in 1896, long-distance communication was carried out either by mail or over miles of cable via telegraph. Marconi's first demonstration of the radiotelegraph transmitted a message just over one mile without the use of wires. Continued improvements increased transmission range to over 200 miles by early 1901, and by the end of the year a single letter ("A") had been transmitted across the Atlantic Ocean. By 1905, many ships were equipped with radiotelegraphs for ship-to-ship and ship-to-land communications, and by 1915 the invention of the three-element vacuum tube, or triode, made it possible to regularly transmit voice messages over the airwaves. Throughout the years, radio has been refined not only for communication, but for detection and ranging (Radar) and astronomy.

Rocketry

New Resource Aluminum appears on the map.

Rockets are projectiles that are propelled by the expulsion of gases generated in a combustion chamber. The first solid-fuel rockets, invented by the Chinese in the 13th century, used a mixture similar to gunpowder for fuel. Although rockets were used in warfare to set fire to buildings and the sails of ships for nearly 500 years, it wasn't until the early 19th century that the first crude explosive rockets were used in battle. Research and design efforts by scientists such as Robert Goddard in the 20th century refined rocket design to produce faster, better controlled rockets. During World War II, this new technology was used to create the German V-2, the first true guided missile. Scientific developments since World War II have been applied to adapt the rocket for use in even more powerful and accurate weapons with incredible range. The rocket is also used in peaceful application such as the launch of satellites and the exploration of space.

Fission

New Resource Uranium appears on the map.

According to Einstein's theory of relativity, even the smallest bit of matter is equivalent to a tremendous amount of energy. For instance, two pounds of matter, if converted completely into energy, would produce energy equivalent to the explosive force of 22 megatons of high explosives. In 1939, based on German experiments that successfully split the uranium atom, physicists were able to explain the process of nuclear fission. When a large, unstable atomic nucleus splits (fissions) it results in two or more smaller, more stable nuclei accompanied by the release of tremendous amounts of energy and lingering, deadly radioactivity. The first application of this powerful technology was in warfare. A top-secret research effort in the U.S. known as the Manhattan Project studied the fission process, and eventually produced the first atomic bombs, which were dropped on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945. These relatively small bombs, the only atomic weapons ever used in a war, each produced an explosion equivalent to more than 20,000 tons of TNT. The nuclear weapons of today are capable of producing explosions thousands of times more powerful.

Computers

A computer is a device capable of performing a series of repetitive arithmetic or logical functions far more quickly than the human brain. The earliest computers were designed to solve complex mathematical equations. British mathematician Charles Babbage conceived such a machine, called the Analytical Engine, in the 19th century. Many variations of analog, or mechanical, computing devices were built during the first half of the 20th century, and were used for such tasks as computing torpedo tracking in submarines and controlling bombsights. The growing study of electronics in the late 1940s led to the invention of the digital computer. The first all-electronic computer, containing 18,000 vacuum tubes and capable of hundreds of multiplications per minute, was built in 1946. Further advances in electronics rapidly reduced the size and increased the speed and efficiency of computers. Today, computers are commonplace, and are used in virtually every field of endeavor. Significant advances in computer technology continue to take place at an amazing pace.

Recycling

Returns 25% of the shield cost when selling improvements in addition to the gold received.

Increasing world population has led to an inevitable increase in the amount of garbage produced by society. Conventional disposal methods, such as burial in a landfill, have proven inadequate to handle the growing waste problem. One solution to this problem is the reuse of discarded materials through recycling. Although scrap metals and other materials have been reused in manufacturing processes for some time, true recycling is a broad-based, household-by-household effort. The increasing pollution generated by industry and consumerism, added to the depletion of natural resources, make the re-use of materials less a concern of efficiency and more as one of necessity for the survival of the human species. Not only does the recycling of waste materials prevent the unwanted build-up of garbage, it saves energy and slows the depletion of natural resources such as trees and petroleum products.

Space_Flight

Utilizing the now well-developed science of rocketry, the modern exploration of space began in October 1957 when the Soviet Union launched Sputnik one. This tiny satellite orbited the earth for 57 days, providing information on radiation and other phenomena in the upper atmosphere. In less than a year, the United States had also launched a satellite, Explorer one. This started the "space race", years of competition between the U.S. and the U.S.S.R. to achieve new frontiers in space exploration. Space flight advanced rapidly from the simple sub-orbital flights of the 1950s, to manned missions to Earth's moon in the late 1960s. The rapid growth of space technology led to many practical applications, such as weather and surveillance satellites, and vastly improved worldwide communications. Today, although hindered by severe government budget cuts, the exploration of space continues. Plans in the near future call for continued orbital exploration via the space shuttle program, and the eventual construction of the multi-national, manned space station "Freedom" in the early 21st century.

Nuclear_Power

In addition to its potential for destruction, the energy released in nuclear fission was seen as a potential source of controlled power generation. By 1944, large-scale nuclear reactors were in operation for the production of plutonium, although the energy produced by these reactors was not used. Following World War II, increased efforts were turned toward the extensive use of nuclear power to produce electricity. Nuclear power plants use the radiant energy of a controlled nuclear reaction to heat water, converting it to steam to spin turbines that generate electricity. The major drawback to nuclear fission is the lack of a safe means of disposal for the waste produced by the reaction, which retains its lethal radioactivity for hundreds of years. Another hazard is the possibility of a malfunction in the reactor that could lead to a meltdown of the core. Despite massive safety precautions, human error and equipment failures can lead to devastating accidents such as the explosion at Chernobyl in 1986, in which at least 30 people were killed and thousands lost their homes and face possible long-term illness after exposure to near-lethal doses of radiation. Because of growing public concern, the development of new nuclear power plants has slowed as scientists search for viable solutions to these problems.

Superconductor

Any material through which an electrical current can pass with relatively little resistance is known as a conductor. When an electric current passes through most conductors, part of that current is lost due to resistance, which varies depending on the conducting material and the ambient temperature. Some conductors, when cooled to temperatures near absolute zero, lose all resistance to current. These are known as superconductors. Because no energy is lost to resistance, superconductors can lead to a wide variety of practical uses. These include super-fast computers, powerful electromagnetic fields strong enough to contain fusion reactions, and the completely efficient generation and transmission of electrical power. Although the extremely low temperatures necessary to produce superconductivity have limited its uses thus far, recent developments hint that some unusual materials may be super conductive even at room temperatures. The isolation and large-scale production of these materials could lead to a new revolution in the field of electronics.

Miniaturization

Early radios and other electronic devices relied on vacuum tube technology. Because the tubes took up a great deal of space, the devices that utilized them tended to be very bulky and cumbersome. In the late 1940s, the development of the transistor provided a compact alternative to vacuum tubes. Transistors were capable of achieving the same level of power amplification achieved by tubes while taking up much less space, and using only a fraction of the power. Starting in the 1960s, the integrated circuit provided still another level of miniaturization. An integrated circuit the size of a transistor could perform the function of 20 transistors. Today, the microprocessor, a modern refinement of the original integrated circuits, can incorporate the functions of several complete printed circuit boards into a single, low-power consumption chip less than two inches square, allowing for the construction of hand-held computers with more computing power than the huge mainframes used in the 70s and 80s.

Ecology

For centuries, human society has taken the gifts of nature for granted. As civilizations grew, humans spread out across the face of the planet, taking what they needed from the land and producing more and more waste materials with little regard for the future. In the late 1960s, a growing number of people became concerned about the growing problems of pollution and the destruction of natural habitats. This movement led to the formation of groups like the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). The EPA's aim is to reduce all types of pollution. To this end, the agency has imposed strict laws and guidelines concerning the disposal of hazardous materials, set clean water standards, and studied more effective techniques of solid waste disposal. The primary goal of the environmental movement as a whole is to make sure that the environment is safe and intact for future generations to enjoy.

Synthetic_Fibers

Modern advances in chemical engineering have given us many new substances which have an astounding number of applications. One of the great advances in the chemistry field was the creation of synthetic fibers. Fibers such as polyester, nylon, and rayon are all laboratory-made and have all been found to have amazing uses - everything from clothing to parachutes. Some non-fabric applications, such as seat belts and Kevlar vests, have helped to save lives. New uses for these amazing substances are still being developed, and our world is becoming more indebted to the development of synthetic fibers.

Satellites

Satellite Imagery The entire world is revealed to any civilization mastering this tech.

Artificial satellites are spacecraft that maintain an orbit around a celestial body. What differentiates an orbit from other types of space flight is it doesn’t require any additional propulsion. Satellites can hold a number of different orbits. One type is a polar orbit, which causes the spacecraft to pass over the north and south poles. Another is an equatorial orbit, which causes the satellite to circle the Earth’s equator. The farther the orbit from the surface of the earth, the longer it takes to complete a circuit of the earth. If the vessel uses an equatorial orbit at a distance of 22,300 miles from Earth, it can achieve geo-synchronous orbit, which causes the satellite to remain stationary over a specific area. The first satellite was the Soviet Union vehicle Sputnik 1, which was launched in October 1957. Today satellites fulfill many roles, including scientific research, weather forecasting, personal and business communication, and military intelligence gathering.

The_Laser

Laser is an acronym for "Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation". Lasers produce an amplified, coherent beam of light by using photons to energize or excite the electrons in the beam. Einstein first proposed the principles for the underlying theory of the stimulated emission of light in 1917. The first helium-neon gas laser was built in 1961. Years of research and development have led to a wide variety of laser applications in many different fields. Lasers can be used for everything from the precision cutting of almost any material and performing microsurgery to reading digital data and music information off of a compact disc. The military currently uses lasers for weapons targeting systems, and it has been proposed that laser technology could be used to defend against an enemy missile attack.

Genetics

The field of genetics involves the manipulation of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). DNA contains the genetic "code" which determines the inherited traits of living organisms. Removing a section of an organism’s DNA and replacing it with that of another organism can alter the characteristics of the organism. Since its inception, genetic engineering has produced a number of important benefits, such as isolating the gene for interferon, a rare substance that may be of great value in the treatment of viral diseases and cancer. Genetic manipulation may someday also provide a cure for birth defects and inherited diseases. Unfortunately, there are also potential dangers involved in this technology. Genetically engineered diseases, more communicable and virulent than any occurring in nature, could potentially be created in the laboratory by accident or maliciously. Such viruses could be used as a dreadful biological weapon. Domestic and international regulations regarding genetic experimentation exist to prevent such a situation from occurring.

Stealth

It has long been recognized that in warfare, the best advantage available is surprise. If one can approach an enemy undetected, the attack has a better chance of being successful. The widespread use of radar starting in World War II greatly decreased the possibility of surprise for an airborne assault. Planes could be detected from miles away, giving the enemy a chance to prepare for the attack. Over the years, the military has employed many different approaches to solve this problem. The most recent development is "Stealth" technology. Stealth planes are painted with radar-absorbing paint, and designed in such a way as to minimize the number of angular surfaces from which an enemy can bounce a radar signal. The engines are also hooded to reduce the plane's heat signature. The result is an aircraft capable of approaching an enemy target, launching an attack, and returning to base with little chance of detection. The F-117A Stealth Fighter was used with great effectiveness by US forces in the Persian Gulf War in 1991.

Smart_Weapons

New Ability Stealth units and F-15s may conduct Precision Strikes.

Smart weapons are those that utilize targeting mechanisms external to it. A good example of this is the ‘Maverick’ munitions, which use a separate laser to ‘designate’ the bomb’s target. The source of this laser can be a plane, a soldier close to the target, or even an orbiting satellite. With the target ‘painted’ by this laser, the Maverick can adjust and refine its path to the target based on the laser’s reflection. Another type of smart weapon is one that uses a TV camera to feed visual information to a human technician. Using this information they could make small or great course changes throughout the flight, right up until impact. A benefit of both these types of guidance is extreme precision. Since many modern conflicts take place among non-combatants, these high tech weapons can ensure that only the actual target is affected by the attack.

Robotics

The creation of machines to assist in, and increase the efficiency of, the manufacturing process gave birth to the factory system of production and started the Industrial Revolution. The invention of digital computers in the late 1940s, and their refinement over the next several decades, took factory automation one step further. Computer-controlled machines, called robots, were designed to perform repetitive or dangerous tasks more quickly than humans. Experimental robots capable of simple manipulation of objects were in operation by the late 1960s. General Motors commissioned the first robots used on an assembly line in the 1970s. Constant improvements in the computer field have allowed the production of incredibly versatile robots, capable of performing a wide variety of tasks under virtually any environmental condition. Robots today are widely used in manufacturing, scientific research, and space exploration.

Integrated_Defense

The threat of nuclear war became the backdrop of world politics after World War II. This terror sparked a fifty year long conflict, the Cold War, between the two leading super powers, the Soviet Union and the United States. Although there was no direct armed conflict between these two nations, the conflicts fought over their opposing ideologies often served to heighten tensions and fears of a nuclear holocaust, from which nothing might have emerged. Integrated defense was a concept born of the Cold War. Using satellite intelligence and laser designation, it was believed, a shield could be erected to pinpoint and destroy all high altitude threats through lasers or missiles. Although no such defense shield was ever erected, the theory behind a national anti missile shield still remains a viable option, especially against a "rogue state" scenario in which there are a very small number of inbound targets to eliminate.

Ironclads

Because of improvements in naval artillery and ammunition in the 19th century CE, warships needed better protection than wooden hulls offered. Ship builders therefore began adding iron plates to the above-water sides of their ships, and the ironclad steamships were born. The French launched the first seagoing ironclad, La Gloire, in 1859. The first battle between ironclads occurred in 1862 during the American Civil War when the CSS Virginia fought the USS Monitor inconclusively for four hours. The Monitor featured a steam-driven gun turret that sat on a flat armored deck. Designed by John Ericsson as a coastal and riverine warship, the Monitor sank in a storm off Cape Hatteras at the end of that year, but her sister ships performed admirably in the US Navy's blockade of Southern ports.

Fascism

Unlike other forms of government, there is no concrete definition of fascism. The word "fascism" comes from the fasces, the bundle of sticks used as a symbol of authority in ancient Rome -- appropriately, since the first fascist government, that of Benito Mussolini in Italy, aspired to regain Rome's glory.
Some common elements of fascism include strong nationalist sentiment, xenophobia, subordination of individual interests to the community, militarism and glorification of the army, secret police forces that enforce secret laws, informer networks, suppression of civil liberties and independent media, and economic policies that tightly tie business and commerce to government. (Note that many of these features are common in communist states as well.)
Fascist states need not be authoritarian, although they usually are; when fascist leaders are democratically elected (as Adolf Hitler was), they often try to modify or abolish the democratic institutions that placed the leaders in power.

GREAT WONDERS

Pyramids

Puts a Granary in every city on the same continent.

This Great Wonder can become a tourist attraction.

May trigger Golden Age for Industrious, Religious, and Agricultural civilizations.

Built by the fourth dynasty of Egyptian rulers, the Pyramids represent the pinnacle of ancient Egyptian cultural achievement. Constructed on the Giza plateau outside modern-day Cairo, these structures were burial tombs and monuments for the Pharaohs, and may have taken generations and tens of thousands of workers to complete. The Pyramids are the only one of the generally accepted man-made wonders of the ancient world that remains in existence today.

Hanging_Gardens

The Hanging Gardens makes three unhappy citizens content in its city and one unhappy citizen content in all other friendly cities.

This Great Wonder can become a tourist attraction.

May trigger Golden Age for Industrious and Agricultural civilizations.

The Hanging Gardens were a distinctive feature of ancient Babylon. They were a great source of pride to the people, and were often described in accounts written by visitors to the city. Possibly built by King Nebuchadnezzar II in 600 BC, the gardens are believed to have been a remarkable feat of engineering: an ascending series of tiered gardens containing all manner of trees, shrubs, and vines. The gardens were said to have looked like a large green mountain constructed of mud bricks, rising from the center of the city.

Colossus

The Colossus causes its city to produce one extra Commerce in every square that already produces at least one.

The Colossus may be built only in a coastal city.

This Great Wonder can become a tourist attraction.

May trigger Golden Age for Expansionist, Seafaring, and Commercial civilizations.

The Colossus of Rhodes was a bronze statue of Helios, the Greek God of the Sun, erected near the mouth of the city harbor. It stood over 100 feet high, about two-thirds the height of the Statue of Liberty. Unfortunately, an earthquake toppled it only 56 years after its construction. Taking the counsel of an oracle, the city elected to leave the statue where it lay. For over 900 years, people from all over the ancient world came to Rhodes to see the Colossus. It remained where it was until 654 AD when the Muslims who plundered the city sold the statue for scrap.

Great Lighthouse

Galleys and other early naval units can move safely in and out of sea squares, and all naval unit movement rates are increased by one.

The Great Lighthouse may be built only in a coastal city.

This Great Wonder can become a tourist attraction.

May trigger Golden Age for Expansionist, Commercial and Seafaring civilizations.

The Pharos was a marble watchtower and lighthouse built in 280 BC on an island in the harbor of Alexandria, Egypt. Estimated to have been 300 feet high, the primary function of the lighthouse was to guide approaching ships to the harbor on an otherwise unmarked coast. Historians debate whether fires were burned on the top of the tower, or whether mirrors were used to reflect sunlight. Since ships rarely sailed along coasts at night, there was probably little need for the lighthouse after dark. The Pharos was destroyed in the 14th century, after having been damaged by several earthquakes.

Great_Library

The civilization that builds the Great Library gets any Civilization Advance already discovered by two other known civilizations for free.

This Great Wonder can become a tourist attraction.

May trigger Golden Age for Scientific civilizations.

The Great Library of Alexandria was one of the two most important libraries of the ancient world. Ptolemy I founded it around 300 BC, and was enhanced and expanded by his successors. The library attempted to obtain copies of all scrolls of any consequence, and eventually contained over 700,000 volumes. Religious fanatics destroyed the library in 391 AD, after nearly 700 years of operation. During this period, Alexandria served as the cultural center of the Hellenistic world. Today, only part of the catalog remains, providing us with a mere hint of what treasures the library contained.

Oracle

Doubles the effect of all Temples in the Empire; they produce two content faces instead of one.

This Great Wonder can become a tourist attraction.

May trigger Golden Age for Religious civilizations.

In ancient Greek religion, an oracle was a priest or priestess through whom the gods spoke in response to questions. The oracle interpreted dreams, the actions of entranced persons, and physical signs found in the entrails of sacrificed animals. The most famous oracle resided in the shrine of Apollo at Delphi, located on the slopes of Mount Parnassus. Greeks, Romans, and others consulted this oracle for centuries about public policy and private matters. A priestess called the Pythia would, for a fee, make public predictions for the future. These ecstatic pronouncements became infamous for their ambiguity.

Great_Wall

Doubles unit combat values versus Barbarians.

Places a Wall in each city of the continent on which it is built.

This Great Wonder can become a tourist attraction.

May trigger Golden Age for Militaristic or Industrious civilizations.

The Great Wall of China, a huge stone structure stretching from the Yellow Sea to the Asian deserts, was built over a period of approximately 1,800 years. The wall is 25 feet high and 12 feet thick, and runs nearly 1,500 miles across northern China. The purpose of the Great Wall was to make it difficult for raiders to escape with their booty, and thereby discourage invasion. Despite its overwhelming size, the wall was not intended to keep invaders out, since manning such a defensive structure would have been prohibitively expensive.

Art_of_War

Puts a barracks in every city on the same continent.

May trigger Golden Age for Militaristic civilizations.

One of the earliest pieces of military literature is "The Art of War", written by Chinese general Sun Tzu in the 6th century BC. This book contained a detailed explanation and analysis of the Chinese military, from weapons and strategy to rank and discipline. Sun Tzu also stressed the importance of intelligence operatives and espionage to the war effort. Because Sun Tzu has long been considered to be one of history's finest military tacticians and analysts, his teachings and strategies formed the basis of advanced military training for centuries to come.

Sistine_Chapel

Doubles the effects of all Cathedrals in your cities.

This Great Wonder can become a tourist attraction.

May trigger Golden Age for Religious civilizations.

The beauty of Rome's Sistine Chapel has long served as a testament to the mixture of strong religious beliefs and the love of art shared by the people of Renaissance Europe. Michelangelo devoted four years to painting the mural that adorns the ceiling, a work depicting events in the book of Genesis and other Biblical stories. Few visitors to the Sistine Chapel have failed to be moved by the artist's dedication to his subject, or his feeling for the nature of human struggle, suffering, and spiritual triumph.

Circumnavigation (aka Magellan's Voyage)

The movement rate of all naval units is increased by one.

May trigger Golden Age for Expansionist, Commercial and Seafaring civilizations.

In 1519, Ferdinand Magellan sailed from Spain with the intention of reaching the spice-rich Malouccas Islands of Indonesia by sailing west, instead of east. Although natives in the Philippines killed Magellan, his expedition went on to prove conclusively that the world was round. More importantly, it proved that the Americas were indeed a New World. Magellan's expedition was one of the great sea voyages of history, and it inspired further expeditions by other explorers. The discoveries made along the way reduced the dangers to all the sea expeditions that followed.

Solar_System (aka Copernicus' Observatory)

Doubles scientific research in the city where it is built.

This Great Wonder can become a tourist attraction.

May trigger Golden Age for Expansionist civilizations.

Ancient astronomers originally put forth the theory that the Sun was the center of our solar system, and that the planets revolve around it. This knowledge was lost during the Dark Ages, but was re-introduced in the early 16th Century by Nicholas Copernicus. Copernicus' research and theories form the foundation for modern astronomy. Copernicus collected his data from his observatory, a small room in the spire of an East Prussian cathedral. His research methods and observations also marked the rebirth of the scientific method, and were an important step in the advance of knowledge.

Great_Playhouse (aka Shakespeare's Theater)

Eight unhappy citizens in the city are made content.

This Great Wonder can become a tourist attraction. A city with Shakespeare's Theater can grow beyond population 12, but you must have a population of 7 or higher in order to build it.

Most of the plays of William Shakespeare were first performed on the stage of London's Globe Theater during the 1600s. Theaters offered people a diversion from their everyday lives by allowing them to enjoy comedies, tragedies, and triumphs acted out on stage. Similar theaters, such as the Comedie Francaise in Paris, and La Scala in Milan, fulfilled similar roles by offering entertainment to the citizens of their cities. Although the original Globe Theater burned down, Shakespeare's plays are still performed in a new theater bearing his name, and in other theaters throughout the world.

Inventor's_Workshop (aka Leonardo's Workshop)

Obsolete military units can be upgraded at half price.

This Great Wonder can become a tourist attraction.

May trigger Golden Age for Militaristic civilizations.

Leonardo da Vinci was one of the most celebrated painters of the Italian Renaissance. His most famous works include the "Mona Lisa" and "The Last Supper". Although best known for his art, da Vinci was also an accomplished observer and designer. Preserved in his sketchbooks are ideas for dozens of inventions, many of them centuries ahead of their time. These include designs for such devices as drawbridges, construction equipment, parachutes, and even helicopters. His scientific and technical drawings became the basis for the development of many of these modern devices.

Grand_Cathedral (aka J.S. Bach Cathedral)

Decreases the number of unhappy citizens on the continent by two per city.

This Great Wonder can become a tourist attraction.

May trigger Golden Age for Religious civilizations.

Few composers were more prolific or beloved than Johann Sebastian Bach. Bach, the most well known member of a gifted family of German musicians, was perhaps the finest composer of the baroque style of music. In his time, he wrote numerous choral and orchestral pieces. During his lifetime, he was renowned as an organist and music director of St. Thomas' Church in Leipzig, and many of his compositions were religious in nature. After his death, Bach's music gained worldwide appreciation.

Great_University (aka Newton's University)

Doubles scientific research in the city where it is built.

This Great Wonder can become a tourist attraction.

May trigger Golden Age for Scientific civilizations.

Sir Isaac Newton, a mathematician and physicist, is considered to be one of the greatest scientists of all time. He is credited with many important discoveries including the laws of gravity, the color spectrum of light, calculus, fluid dynamics, and an understanding of ocean tides. He also built the world's first reflecting telescope. For 32 years, he held an important teaching post at Cambridge University, where he continued his own research while instructing a generation of students.

Smith's Trading_Company

Pays maintenance costs for all trade-based city improvements (Harbors, Marketplaces, Banks, Airports, Commerical Dock and Stock Exchanges).

May trigger Golden Age for Commercial and Seafaring civilizations.

Adam Smith is generally regarded as the father of modern economics. In his book "The Wealth of Nations", he analyzed the economic processes of supply and demand, and discussed how free trade and individual ambition would lead to both economic and social growth. Smith favored a political environment where the government would only become involved in business and trade to preserve justice and order. Smith's ideas of economics and the lack of government involvement form the basis of modern economic liberalism.

Universal_Suffrage

Reduces war weariness in all cities.

May trigger Golden Age for Agricultural civilizations.

After decades of struggle, women in the United States won the right to vote in 1920 with the passage of the 19th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. The achievement of women's suffrage was accelerated by the excellent record of women working in jobs traditionally held by men during World War I. Full voting rights were granted to women in Great Britain in 1928. Since that time, women have gained the right to vote in most countries in the developed world.

Hoover_Dam

Brings the effects of a hydro plant to all cities on the same continent.

To build the Hoover Dam a city must have a river within its radius.

This Great Wonder can become a tourist attraction.

May trigger Golden Age for Industrious and Agricultural civilizations.

For centuries, mankind has been harnessing the power of rivers to move waterwheels for various purposes. With the advent of electrical power, it was found the rivers were also very useful for generating electricity. Hydroelectric power plants derive power from rivers by constructing dams to ensure a dependable supply of water. The overflow is then released through special chambers where the moving water turns giant turbines, generating electricity. When planned and engineered properly, this system provides an excellent power source with very limited environmental impact. The Hoover Dam, constructed on the Colorado River near Las Vegas, was one of the earliest hydroelectric power plants.

Manhattan_Project

Allows the construction of nuclear weapons by all civilizations. Nuclear Weapons can Not be built until this Wonder has been completed.

May trigger Golden Age for Militaristic or Industrious civilizations.

The Manhattan Project was the code name for an intensive and costly research effort during World War II that resulted in the development of atomic weapons. The first two such weapons, the bombs dropped on Nagasaki and Hiroshima in 1945, brought an end to the Second World War. For a short time, the United States held a monopoly on atomic weapons. However, by 1949 the Soviet Union had also developed similar technology, based in part on Manhattan Project information obtained through espionage. The nuclear standoff that has resulted from this balance of power may be largely responsible for the absence of major wars since World War II.

Cure_for_Cancer

Makes one unhappy citizen content in every city.

May trigger Golden Age for Scientific and Agricultural civilizations.

Despite the huge outlays of cash for research and study, cancer still looms as a terrifying and deadly plague on the human race. Although scientists and doctors have discovered many different forms of cancer, and have identified some of the factors that can trigger the disease, a true cure still eludes modern medical science. A cure for cancer would put an end to the source of much suffering and anguish, and allow millions of people, who would otherwise be doomed, to lead happy and productive lives.

Longevity

All cities get a population increase of two instead of one when the Food Storage box is full.

May trigger Golden Age for Scientific civilizations.

As the lifespan of a human being has slowly increased over the centuries, a shift in medical focus began to take place. Infectious diseases, once the leading cause of death, began to be tamed by modern vaccinations. This allowed the field to spend more time combating those ailments associated with advanced aging, such as cancer and heart disease. This trend shows no signs of slowing, but rather accelerating. Modern technology permits sophisticated diagnosis and treatment of illness, while at the same time identifying their genetic roots.

Theory_of_Evolution

Grants two Civilization Advances as soon as completed.

May trigger Golden Age for Scientific civilizations.

Charles Darwin, the main proponent of the theory of evolution based on natural selection, built up much of his evidence for this theory during a five-year voyage around the world. His voyage aboard the H.M.S. Beagle was instrumental not only in the establishment of his theory, but also in the application of the scientific method to the study of nature. Darwin published his theory of evolution in his book "On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection". His studies were so thorough that the scientific world never challenged his findings. However, his findings were, and continue to be, challenged on philosophical and religious grounds. Darwin's research opened many new lines of inquiry, and inspired a wave of new biological research.

United_Nations

Initiates the possibility of a Diplomatic Victory.

This Great Wonder can become a tourist attraction.

May trigger Golden Age for Commercial civilizations.

Created in 1945 to maintain international peace and security, the United Nations was the second of two laudable efforts to establish an international authority on law and human rights between the self governing nations of the world. Headquartered in New York City, the United Nations was established at the end of World War II in response to the apparent ineffectiveness of the League of Nations to prevent another global conflict on the scale of "The War to End All Wars". The organization was originally conceived in 1941 as the Atlantic Charter, an agreement signed between Winston Churchill and Franklin D. Roosevelt, but developed into a pact signed by 26 countries to try to stop the aggression of the Axis powers. In 1945, in a conference between "The Big Three", Churchill, Roosevelt, and Stalin, the original charter was laid down. Throughout its history the United Nations has had great success in establishing many permanent international laws on subjects from human rights, international treaties, and worldwide decolonization. Although the United Nations does not have the power to enforce decisions or compel nations to take military action, the ability to compel member nations to impose economic sanctions against countries guilty of violating security orders gives it significant power in the world stage.

SETI_Program

Doubles scientific research in the city where it is built.

May trigger Golden Age for Expansionist civilizations.

The Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence (SETI) was officially initiated by the United States in the latter half of the 20th Century. The purpose of the program was to find some sort of conclusive evidence that intelligent life existed beyond the confines of our planet. Employing banks of radio telescopes and other detection equipment, SETI scans the skies hoping to find proof of extraterrestrial life in the form of radio transmissions and other activity. Although the program has yet to find such proof, the effort has produced many useful benefits to astronomy, telecommunications, and other high-tech fields.

Internet

Puts a Research Lab in every city on the same continent.

May trigger Golden Age for all civilizations.

The Internet is a computer system architecture that has revolutionized methods of communications and commerce by allowing various computer networks around the world to connect. The internet provides a capability so powerful and general that it can be used for almost any purpose, supporting human communication via e-mail, chat rooms, newsgroups, forums, as well as in audio and video transmissions. The Internet emerged in the United States in the 1970s, but did not become visible to the general public until the early 1990s. By the beginning of the 21st century, approximately 6% of the world’s population was estimated to have access to the internet. It is widely assumed that at least half of the world's population will have some form of access to the internet by the year 2010. Many experts believe that the Internet will continue to dramatically transform business as well as society.

Temple of Artemis

Puts a Temple in every city on the same continent.

This Great Wonder can become a tourist attraction.

May trigger Golden Age for Religious civilizations.

One of the original Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus was an immense, grand temple and marketplace constructed of marble, financed by the Greek king Croesus (whose name is now synonymous with great wealth). Filled with treasures and statues of bronze, gold, and silver from around the civilized world, it stood for just two hundred years before it was burned by a fame-seeking arsonist. It was rebuilt twice, but never as grandly as it stood at its apex in the 6th century B.C. The Temple was destroyed for the last time by a Christian missionary and saint, who sought to eliminate this powerful symbol of the pagan world.

Statue of Zeus

The Statue of Zeus produces an Ancient Cavalry every 5 turns.

A city must have access to Ivory to build The Statue of Zeus.

This Great Wonder can become a tourist attraction.

May trigger Golden Age for Religious and Militaristic civilizations.

The Statue of Zeus at Olympia, the site of the original Olympic Games held to honor the king of the gods, depicted him as a massive ivory figure clad in robes and sandals of gold. The statue was almost four stories tall, with its head nearly touching the roof of the temple that housed it. The sculpture is described as exquisite in even the tiniest details by historians and writers of the day -- its robes intricately carved with designs of animals, flowers, and images of Zeus' children, and its base surrounded by sphinxes and other mythological creatures. Such a statue could not long escape the notice of greedy kings and warlords, and several attempts were made to steal the statue -- including one by the crazed Roman emperor Caligula. The statue was finally successfully stolen about the third century A.D., and was destroyed in a fire in Constantinople just after the fall of Rome. No images or accurate reconstructions of this, one of the lost Wonders of the Ancient World, survive today.

Mausoleum of Mausollos

The Mausoleum of Mausollos makes three unhappy citizens content in its city.

This Great Wonder can become a tourist attraction.

May trigger Golden Age for Scientific and Seafaring civilizations.

The tomb of King Mausollos of Caria (from whose name the generic term "mausoleum" derives), a local Persian ruler, was not especially remarkable in its construction or size. Its status as one of the Ancient Wonders of the World comes from the dozens of painstakingly carved statues and sculptures that surrounded it. They depicted legendary and real people, and the noble animals of mythology and history. Inside the mausoleum was a great frieze, or wall-carving, depicting an epic battle between the Greeks and the Amazons, and topping the mausoleum's dome was a huge statue of a four-horse chariot. The Mausoleum and its statues survived until after the Crusades, when Christian knights founded a new crusader kingdom in Asia Minor, and used the already-carved stones of the Mausoleum to build castles. The statues, in turn, spread around the world, until British archaeologists began to collect and recover them. Some can be seen today in museums, but most have been lost or destroyed.

Knights_Templar

The Knights Templar produces a Crusader every 5 turns.

May trigger Golden Age for Militaristic and Religious civilizations.

The Knights Templar was a holy order devoted to defending the fledgling crusader states founded during the First Crusade against Muslim reconquest. The king of Jerusalem allowed them to make their headquarters in the main temple of Jerusalem, from which they took their name. In exchange for this hospitality they swore allegiance to the throne of Jerusalem. They participated in several major battles and did very well; this increased their numbers substantially. Eventually their power grew so much -- to the point where they could field an army of almost 10,000 knights and still uphold their promises to garrison individual towns -- that the Pope decided to place them under his direct control.
Templar valor in the Holy Land resulted in many rewards back in Europe; knights who fought under the red cross and white field of the Templars often found themselves with new estates and castles in their native countries. As a result the order became fantastically wealthy, as the Grandmasters shrewdly invested the order's wealth, using plunder to buy goods and sell them throughout the Mediterranean.
Kings, however, often become jealous of wealthy organizations over which they have little or no control. The French king Philip IV, his treasury emptied and his debts monstrous from constant warfare, accused the Templars of heresy and blasphemy, and confiscated almost all of their wealth in France. Other monarchs followed suit, embarking on a program of persecution and repression whose goal was mostly to secure the Templars' money for themselves. Hundreds of Templars gave false confessions of heresy under torture, and others were burned at the stake. The order died out completely in the early 14th century when the entire Templar leadership had been murdered.

SMALL WONDERS

Epic

Increases the chances of the appearance of leaders from victorious combat.
Requires: The civilization must have had a victorious army.

The Epic of Gilgamesh documents the adventures of this Middle Eastern hero. Of special interest to biblical scholars, the document was found among the ruins of Nineveh. More than 3000 lines, scribed across 12 tablets, this tale was written around 2000 BC. Gilgamesh was a king of Uruk, which now lies within the borders of Iraq.

Great_Ironworks

Production increased by 100% in the city where it's built.
Requires: The city that builds it must have Iron and Coal in its city radius.

As mankind’s dependence on metals increased through the ages, it became very important to cheaply and effectively separate the base metal from impurities. The process of smelting, through the use of a structure called a blast furnace, achieved just that. Using carbon dioxide created from oxidized coke to absorb the oxygen from the molten iron, it leaves the metal ‘slag’ to sink to the bottom of the furnace. This separation allows for a pure iron to be derived, which is then used for numerous purposes, including the creation of steel.

Forbidden_Palace

Gives similar benefits as the Palace but still suffers some corruption. By building the Forbidden Palace you also increase the optimal number of cities for your civilization to have. This amount is relative to map size, difficulty, and current government choice. This is cumulative with Secret Police HQ.
Requires: The civilization must have at least ten cities (on a standard size map) under its control.

A collection of imperial structures in Beijing, the Forbidden Palace stands as a testament to the Chinese architectural ingenuity and aesthetic. Ornamental gardens, terraces and fountains surround the magnificent structure, which became the capital of China in 1421.

Military_Academy

The city with the Military Academy can build armies without the benefit of a leader. Armies from this civilization are more effective in combat.

Requires: The civilization must have had a victorious army.

Methods of passing down the tactics and arts of war from generation to generation vary based on culture and era. The United States solution, which up to that point relied on foreign instructors, lay in creating the United States Military Academy, located at West Point, New York. Established on the site of a 18th century fortress in 1802, West Point went on to craft most of the nation’s military leaders. Cadets are selected for training via a diverse number of methods, including competitive and non-competitive methods. Graduates earn the commission as Second Lieutenants and receive a Bachelor of Science degree. One paramount function of this institution is to stay current in the practice of warfare, typically by having officers from previous conflicts become instructors.

Pentagon

The Pentagon increases the unit capacity of all the civilization's armies from three to four.
Requires: The civilization must have at least three armies in the field.

The Pentagon is the largest office building in existence. The structure was completed on January 15, 1943, during the height of the Second World War, after a crash building effort of only 16 months. The 83 million dollar facility covers more than six million square feet, roughly three times that of the Chicago’s Sears Tower (the second largest office building). Originally a US Army facility, it soon became the nerve center for all military branches of the United States.

Wall_Street

The treasury begins earning 5% interest every turn with a maximum cap of 50 gold per turn.
Requires: The civilization must have at least five Stock Exchanges in cities it controls.

The location of the New York Stock Exchange, Wall Street has become the epitome of the modern financial district. A narrow street running from Broadway to the East River, it houses some of the world's most prestigious and powerful banks and commodity exchanges. In 1653 Dutch colonists erected a barricade along this route to ward off the British and unfriendly natives.

Apollo_Project

Completion of the Apollo Program enables the civilization to begin construction of the Alpha Centauri Spaceship.

The Apollo Program was begun by the United States in the late 1960s. Following the success of the manned orbital missions of the Mercury and Gemini missions, the destination of the Apollo Program was the moon. The early Apollo flights concentrated on orbital observations of the moon, and testing the docking systems of the Apollo craft. Apollo 11 accomplished the ultimate goal of the Apollo Program on July 20, 1969, when Neil Armstrong became the first human to walk on the moon. Several other landings followed, the last being Apollo 17 in December, 1972. The Apollo Program truly represented a "giant leap for mankind". The U.S. manned lunar missions are unparalleled feats in space exploration, and the technology originally developed for the Apollo Program was later found to be invaluable in designing future space vehicles and orbital platforms.

SDI

Offers a 75% chance of intercepting enemy ICBMs.
Requires: The civilization must have at least five SAM Batteries in cities it controls.

Historically, research in the area of warfare has seen the development of powerful new weapons closely followed by the development of defenses to counteract the weapons' destructive power. The development of nuclear weapons seemed to be the exception to this rule: for the first time, mankind had created a weapon to which there was apparently no effective defense. SDI (Strategic Defense Initiative), however, could be the answer to this problem. Using laser-equipped orbital satellites or ground-launched ABMs (Anti-ballistic Missiles) to intercept and destroy enemy nuclear missiles in mid-air, the SDI Defense offers the first hope of negating the threat posed by nuclear missiles.

Intelligence_Center

The intelligence agency allows the player to undertake Espionage missions.

The benefits of using spies and espionage in military matters were identified early in mankind’s history. Both the pharaohs of Egypt and Caesars of Rome setup embassies in neighboring nations in order to monitor the expansion and movement of military forces. As technology increased the potential scale of warfare, it became critical to know from where and when threats would emerge. This can be seen in the plethora of methods used in acquiring information on a not-so-friendly nation. These include high altitude reconnaissance photography, actual battlefield observation, and covert missions. All this information usually focuses at the Intelligence Center, which collates and analyzes this valuable data from their diverse and remote sources.

Battlefield_Medicine

Allows military units to heal in enemy territory.
Requires: The civilization must have at least five hospitals in cities it controls.

While fundamentally in conflict with the destructive goals of war, physicians must still proffer aid to those in need. The practice of repairing the personal damage of war, sometimes actually during the fight itself, has a number of benefits beyond the obvious. A paramount one is that of morale, since the soldiers of an army that contains surgeons are assured care if they fall in battle.

Secret_Police_HQ

Gives similar benefits as the Palace but still suffers some corruption. By building Secret_Police_HQ you also increase the optimal number of cities for your civilization to have. This amount is relative to map size, difficulty, and current government choice. This is cumulative with Forbidden Palace.
Requires: Only civilizations under Communist government can build the Secret Police HQ. Changing from Communism will cause the Secret Police HQ bonuses to stop.

Totalitarian governments virtually always rely heavily on secret police forces to enforce ideological and political reliability in the populations they govern. Secret police headquarters are often innocuous and bland, and usually contain not just offices and meeting rooms but interrogation and torture facilities, prison cells, execution chambers, and so forth. The Soviet KGB's headquarters was made in the Lubyanka, a tsarist-era office building located over an underground prison complex. Across the street from the Lubyanka was a toy store for children, to take away from the sinister image projected by the building.

Tribes

ROMANS

The Romans are militaristic and commercial. They start the game with Warrior Code and Alphabet and build legionaries instead of normal swordsmen.

The founding of Rome on the fertile Tibur River is obscured by myth and legend, but it is generally accepted that Rome was first settled in 753 BC and that the Republic was founded in 509 BC, following the overthrow of Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, the last of Rome's seven kings. Rome was built on a site highly prized by the Etruscans, who dominated the Italian peninsula in the 6th century BC. The Etruscan king Porsenna defeated the Romans and expelled Tarquinius Superbus. Yet before Porsenna could establish himself as monarch over the unruly Romans, he was forced to withdraw. Rather than restoring their inept king, the citizens replaced the monarchy with two elected consuls, generals whose primary task it was to lead Rome's armies, and a Senate to serve as an advisory body. Where the Etruscans had failed, the people of Rome succeeded in the task of unifying the various Italian peoples into a political whole.
Toward the end of the 5th century BC, the Romans, propelled by the pressures of unchecked population growth, began to expand at the expense of nearby city-states. Rome's first two wars were fought with Fidenae, an independent city near Rome, and against Veii, an important Etruscan city. In the process, the expanding Roman Republic found the Greek phalanx formation too unwieldy for fragmented fighting in the hills and valleys of central Italy; accordingly, Rome evolved a new tactical system based on flexible ranks of cohorts, organized into self-contained Legions, the means by which Imperial Rome conquered and ruled the ancient world.
When Rome became increasingly powerful, the remaining city-states took up arms; the ensuing Latin War (340-338 BC) was quickly decided in Rome's favor. By 264 BC all Italy south of the Alps was united under the leadership of Rome, its members either incorporated in or allied with the Republic. Rome's growing influence led it into conflict with Carthage, an established commercial power in northern Africa. The defeat and destruction of Carthage in the three Punic Wars (264-146 BC) sustained Rome's acquisitive momentum, and the Republic set its sights on dominating the entire Mediterranean area. In short order, the Romans overran Syria, Macedonia, Greece and Egypt, all of which had until then been part of the decaying Hellenistic empire created by Alexander the Great.
But such expansion was not without costs; tensions grew and civil war erupted. The ensuing period of unrest and revolution marked the transition of Rome from a republic to an empire. The later stages of these civil wars encompassed the careers of the brilliant Pompey, the orator Cicero, and the consul Julius Caesar, the conqueror of Gaul (58-50 BC), who eventually was given power over Rome as its dictator. After his assassination in 44 BC, it was not long before civil war again erupted; but following his victory at Actium (31 BC), Octavian, Julius' nephew, was crowned Rome's first emperor, Augustus 27 BC-14 AD). Although there were exceptions such as Caligula (37-41) and Nero (54-68), Rome was blessed with a series of able and brilliant leaders who expanded the frontiers until Rome's empire reached from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to Persia.
Imperial Rome was distinguished not only for its military - the foundation upon which the empire rested - but also for its accomplishments in engineering and statecraft. The Romans were gifted in the applied arts of law, record-keeping and city planning, yet they also acknowledged and adopted the contributions of earlier peoples - most notably, those of the Greeks, much of whose culture was thereby preserved. Roman law was a complex body of precedents and opinions, which were finally codified in the 6th century as the Justinian Code. The empire's road network was without match in the ancient world, designed for rapid movement of commerce, agriculture, mail delivery as well as the army. Roman city planners achieved unprecedented standards of hygiene with their plumbing, sewage disposal, dams and aqueducts. Roman art and architecture, though often imitative of Greek styles, was boldly planned and lavishly executed. Roman science and culture, in short, became the foundations of the European world.

EGYPTIANS

The Egyptians are religious and industrious. They start the game with Masonry and Ceremonial Burial and build war chariots instead of normal chariots.

Few civilizations have left such an indelible mark on history as that of ancient Egypt. Though the first settlers of the Nile valley are thought to have arrived as early as 7000 BC, it wasn't until the legendary king Menes unified Upper and Lower Egypt that the region began to develop a cohesive sense of culture and identity. This First Dynasty (2925-2775 BC), with its capital at Memphis, was followed by 26 more over the next 2700 years. Writing was the major instrument in the centralization and self-preservation of Egypt. The two basic forms of writing, hieroglyphs and the cursive form known as hieratic (used on papyrus), were invented at much the same time in late pre-dynastic Egypt (about 3000 BC). Writing was used chiefly for administration and until about 2650 BC no continuous texts were recorded; the only literary texts written down before the early Middle Kingdom (1950 BC) seem to have been lists of religious practices and medical treatises. Another strength was the Egyptian religion, which was one of the most enduring of the ancient world, through which Egypt became a highly stratified, highly efficient society. Egypt’s economic strength allowed for the support of a priestly class, who were tasked with the spiritual well being of the people yet able to devote their time to the study of religion, astronomy, philosophy and mathematics. The priesthood also served the functions of a state bureaucracy, carrying out the edicts of the Pharaoh and managing his financial and diplomatic affairs. The great organizational and economic power of Egypt allowed the rulers to accomplish unmatched works of construction. The Great Pyramids of Giza, completed in the Fourth Dynasty (2575-2465 BC), still stand as one of mankind’s most impressive feats of engineering and logistics.
Previous to 1700 BC, no outsiders had ever held dominion over Egypt. That changed when the Hyksos, a Semitic people, overran Lower Egypt. Thereafter, Egypt’s borders were defended by capable Libyan warriors and the elite often rode into battle in War Chariots, which were able to use speed to outflank opponents and break up organized formations of troops. Egypt’s greatest military strength, however, lay in the employment of mercenaries from Macedonia, Greece, Nubia and many other neighboring peoples - Egyptian gold was always their most valuable military asset. However, this was not enough to guarantee the isolation of the richest land in the Mediterranean world. Egypt fell to the Assyrians, and then to the Persians yet even during the plunder of Xerxes’ governors, Egyptian culture and religion survived. Alexander the Great liberated the Egyptians from Persian rule in 332 BC and established the city of Alexandria, which was to become the new capital of Hellenic Egypt under the rule of the Macedonian Ptolemaic dynasty (332-30 BC), the last Egyptian kingdom. The kingdom was one of several that emerged in the aftermath of Alexander's death and the struggles of his successors. It was the wealthiest, however, and for much of the next 300 years, the most powerful politically and militarily.
The able Ptolemies ruled in an unbroken line until the death of Cleopatra VII in 30 BC. Cleopatra’s infamous liaisons with Julius Caesar and Mark Antony proved the eventual downfall of independent Egypt. Her ambition rivaled theirs, and sadly it served her no better. Her suicide marked the end of Pharaohic rule and the beginning of Egypt's centuries as a Roman and Byzantine province. Although swept by the Islamic tide in 642 AD, Egypt was to remain under foreign occupation - Arabic, Ottoman, French and British - until after World War I, when she finally gained her independence from a British administration weary of overseas conflict. From 1922 through 1952, Egypt appeared to be one of the world’s most successful constitutional monarchies. But it was ripe for revolution; the military coup of July 1952 led by Gamal Nasser, ironically, finally made Egypt an island of stability in a turbulent Middle East.

GREEKS

The Greeks are scientific and commercial. They start the game with Bronze Working and Alphabet and build Hoplites instead of spearmen.

The period following the catastrophic collapse of the Mycenaean civilization in Greece (about 1200 BC) was marked by a series of migrations by barbarian peoples from the north, leading to a number of city-states - prominent among these, Sparta and Athens - and a phase of Greek colonization along the shores of the Mediterranean. For two centuries, Greek history was a provincial tale of neighbors squabbling over scarce resources. But it was also the dawn of philosophy and science. There seems to be no good reason why the Hellenes, clustered in isolated city-states in a relatively poor and backward land, should have struck out into intellectual regions that were only dimly perceived, if at all, by the splendid civilizations of the Yangtze, the Tigris and Euphrates, and the Nile valleys; but they did.
The Persian Wars (492-449 BC) were sparked by a revolt of Greek colonies in Asia Minor and brought the Greeks onto the stage of world history. Athens and Eretria sent a small fleet in support of the revolt, which the Persian emperors took as a pretext for launching two invasions of the Greek mainland. In 490 BC a Persian army under Darius I (522-486 BC) landed unopposed on the plain of Marathon; following an appeal to the Spartans, the Athenian-led Greeks won a decisive victory. A second invasion ten years later, blunted by the valiant stand by the Spartans and Thespians at Thermopylae (481 BC), ended with the crushing defeat of the Persian fleet at Salamis. Sporadic fighting between Greek alliances and Persia continued for another 30 years, before the Peace of Callas (449 BC) finally ended the hostilities. The surprising Greek triumph ensured the survival of Greek culture and political structures.
Growing tensions among the victors led to the Peloponnesian Wars (431-404 BC), fought between Athens and Sparta. The Athenian league was, in fact, an empire that included most of the island and coastal states around the shores of the Aegean Sea, while Sparta was leader of an alliance of independent cities that included most of the major land powers of the peninsula. The end finally came in 404 BC when, starved by an impenetrable blockade, Athens capitulated. Athens' devastation and decline was perhaps the worst casualty in a war that crippled Greek unity. By this time, a new power was growing in the north of Greece. In 353 BC, Philip I was in undisputed control of a much-enlarged Macedonia. Phalanx tactics were known from ancient Sumer and Egypt, but Philip perfected the tactical use of spear-wielding Hoplites in dense, massive blocks of eight, or even 16-20 ranks, sacrificing flexibility and mobility in order to achieve maximum protection and power. Unless Alexander (336-323 BC) was himself responsible for his father's assassination in 336 BC, he cannot have foreseen the moment of his succession - but he was certainly prepared. Educated by Aristotle and left in charge of Macedonia during Philip's attack on Byzantium, Alexander defeated the Maedi; two years later he commanded the left wing at the battle of Chaeronea, in which Philip defeated the allied Greek states. By the time of his death at the age of 33, Alexander had moved the great centers of civilization westward initiating a new age, spread Hellenism in a vast colonizing wave throughout the Middle East and created, at least economically and culturally if not politically, a single civilization stretching from Gibraltar to the Punjab, open to trade and intellectual intercourse.
However, the Greek empire could hardly survive Alexander's death. During a 40-year (323-280 BC) interregnum, the provinces became independent kingdoms, with various of Alexander's generals rising to rule through bloodshed and assassination, yet unable to ally against the coming of a new military power. By 350 BC, Rome was encroaching on the westernmost Greek settlements, beginning a 200-year conquest of the Hellenic world that Alexander had created. With the defeat of Cleopatra and Mark Anthony, Octavian's forces occupied Egypt and the last kingdom of Alexander's successors fell to Rome. For two millennia, Greece was part of the Roman, then Byzantine and finally the Ottoman empires. Following an uprising supported by Britain, Russia and France, Greece's existence as an independent nation gained formal recognition in 1832.

BABYLON

The Babylonians are scientific and religious. They start the game with Bronze Working and Ceremonial Burial and build bowmen instead of normal archers.

Because of the historical significance and legendary status achieved by the city of Babylon, the term "Babylonian" is often used to refer to all of the ancient cultures and tribes of Mesopotamia. The oldest known urban and literate culture in the world was developed by the Sumerians in Mesopotamia beginning in the late 4th millennium BC. For centuries, Babylon was an insignificant suburb of the Sumerian capital of Ur until Hammurabi (1792-1750 BC) came to power. Hammurabi unified the bickering Sumerians and Akkadians and created the famous Code of Hammurabi, the most comprehensive code of laws of antiquity with 283 entries covering topics from criminal punishments to family laws. Under Hammurabi, Babylon became the commercial and political center of southern Mesopotamia, but its prestige and wealth made it a target for foreign conquerors. The city and empire would be ruled, in succession, by the Hittites, Kassites, Assyrians, Arameans and Chaldeans.
Under the Chaldean leader Nebuchadnezzar II (605-561 BC), Babylon entered its second golden age, spanning the 7th and 6th centuries BC. Aside from the destruction of Jerusalem and Judah, Nebuchadnezzar II is best known for his efforts to rebuild Babylon and reorganize its military forces, returning it to glory as one of the great cities in the ancient world. The fabled Hanging Gardens were constructed at Nebuchadnezzar's decree, reportedly to help his Median wife overcome her longing for the "mountainous scenery" of her homeland. He also rebuilt the great Temple of Marduk and its ziggurat, collectively known as the Tower of Babel. Following Nebuchadnezzar's death, his successor Nabonidus failed to maintain the skilled Bowmen formations and the massive fortifications of the great city. When the Persians under Cyrus attacked in 539 BC, the capital fell almost without resistance. Babylon remained in Persian hands until Alexander the Great overthrew the Persian Empire. Alexander planned to make Babylon the center of his expanded Hellenic empire; however, he died in Nebuchadnezzar's palace before those plans could be completed. Alexander's empire would not survive his death; after a power struggle among Alexander's generals, Babylon passed to the Seleucid dynasty in 312 BC. The city's importance was much reduced by the building of a new capital, Seleucia, on the Tigris, to which most of Babylon's population was forcibly transferred in 275 BC. In the 2nd century BC Mesopotamia became part of the Parthian empire, and Babylon itself a buffer region between the Parthians and the Roman Empire. By the time of Christ, the city was an extensive field of ruins and largely deserted. In the 7th century AD, Mesopotamia was conquered by Muslim Arabs. Babylon passed into legend, and from that time forward the history of the Babylonian realm is that of Iraq and Iran. The city itself would not be re-discovered until the initial surveys by the British archaeologist C.J. Rich in 1811 and 1817. Major excavation began in 1899, under the auspices of the German Oriental Society, and have continued unabated since, revealing more of the wonders of the lost city of Babylon.

GERMANS

The Germans are scientific and militaristic. They start the game with Bronze Working and Warrior Code and build panzers instead of tanks.

Julius Caesar's Gallic Wars brought the Germanic tribes into the spotlight of history. Although Roman efforts to establish hegemony across the Rhine continued for decades, the frontier eventually stabilized along the Rhine and Danube rivers. At that time, Germanic culture extended from Scandinavia as far south as the Carpathians. Although it was heavily fortified, the frontier was never a barrier to trade or culture. Germanic fear of the Huns meant that the Roman Empire could, in moments of crisis, mobilize at least the Goths, Burgundians, and Franks for mutual defense. Soon after Attila's death in 453, however, the Hun empire collapsed, and Rome lost this hold over the Germans.
The Merovingian kings and their Carolingian successors eventually brought much of what would later constitute Germany under Frankish control, but the ceaseless blows from Danes, Saracens and Magyars in the later 9th and 10th centuries weakened the kingdom's cohesion. Because the Carolingians themselves were unable to provide effective defense for the empire, there arose in nearly all the German lands powerful lines of margraves, counts and hereditary rulers, their intrigues and wars against each other interrupted only briefly by the rise of strong electors such as Frederick Barbarossa (1155-1190). The subsequent history of Germany is, despite the role of the central rule of the Holy Roman Empire, one of the rise and fall of feuding principalities.
It would be a thousand years before Germany was again unified under a single ruler. Troubled by the mass insurrections and diplomatic defeats that had followed the Napoleonic Wars, William I of Prussia (1861-1888) considered abdicating in favor of his son, who was believed to have political views close to those of the liberal opposition. He was persuaded, however, to consider forming a new government led by Otto von Bismarck, the Prussian ambassador to Paris.
In September 1862, Europe was startled by the news that a statesman with a reputation for conservatism, nationalism and realpolitik had become the prime minister of Prussia. The new German Empire was proclaimed in January 1871, in the aftermath of three short and decisive wars against Denmark, Austria and France by coalitions of German states. Bismarck had unified Germany.
The same nationalism that brought unity would bring disaster. Already staggering under a vengeful peace imposed by the Western Allies following World War I, the worldwide economic collapse that began in 1929 proved the catalyst for political extremism. Although bitterly opposed to each other, the Nazis and Communists during the next decade succeeded in mobilizing the political and economic resentments generated by defeat and depression. When Hitler finally became chancellor in January 1933, it was not on the crest of a wave of popular support but as the result of ruthless political intrigue.
World War II is appropriately called "Hitler's War." Spearheaded by Panzer formations using revolutionary new tactics, Hitler came close to realizing his aim of establishing German hegemony in Europe. But the turning point of the war came with his decision to send his Panzers into Soviet Russia. Though at the end of 1942 an ultimate German victory still seemed possible, by spring 1945 the Third Reich was prostrate. As a legacy of surrender and the ensuing Cold War, a truncated Germany was divided into two zones of military occupation. While under Soviet rule East Germany suffered and stagnated, West Germany's recovery from total economic and political prostration at the end of World War II was of such dramatic proportions as to become a modern legend.
The swift and unexpected downfall of the Soviet order in Europe led to a unification treaty, ratified by the West German Bundestag and the East German People's Chamber in September 1990. After 45 years of division, Germany was once again a united nation.

RUSSIAN

The Russians are scientific and expansionist. They start the game with Bronze Working and Pottery and build cossacks instead of normal cavalry.

Indo-European, Ural-Altaic, and other races have occupied what is now the territory of Russia since 2000 BC, but little is known about their institutions and activities. Modern Russia dates from about 770, when Viking explorers began an intensive penetration of the Volga region. From bases in estuaries along the eastern Baltic, Scandinavian bands, probably in search of new trade routes to the east, began to penetrate territory populated by Finnish and Slavic tribes, where they found unlimited natural resources.
Within a few decades the Rus, as the Viking settlers were known, together with other Scandinavians operating farther west, extended their raiding activities down the main river routes toward Baghdad and Constantinople, reaching the Black Sea in 860. In the period from 930 to 1000, the region came under complete control by the Rus from their capital at Novgorod.
The lifeblood of this sprawling Kievan empire was the commerce organized by these Viking princes. Novgorod's burghers even forged an accommodation with the invading Mongols during the 13th century, but its absorption by the growing Slavic principality of Muscovy in 1478 ended its political independence.
Ivan III (1462-1505) consolidated the gains his father, Vasily II, had won in the saddle. This "gathering of the Russian lands" became a conscious and irresistible five-century drive by Moscow to annex all Slavic lands, both the Russian territories and the Belorussian and Ukrainian regions. The ascension of Peter I (the Great; 1694-1725) ushered in and established the social, political and intellectual trends that were to dominate Russia for the next two centuries. The location of his capital, St. Petersburg, on the shores of the Gulf of Finland symbolized this shift toward a European involvement.
Catherine the Great (1762-1796) would prove to be Peter's true intellectual and political heir. Catherine's reign was notable for imperial expansion. Most important were the securing of the northern shore of the Black Sea, the annexation of the Crimea, and the expansion into the steppes beyond the Urals. This permitted the protection of Russian agricultural settlements in the south and the establishment of trade routes through the Black Sea. In the process, the military democracies of the Cossack hosts along the Dnieper, Don and Volga rivers lost their autonomy and special privileges; the wealthier officers became Russian nobles, receiving the right to own and settle serfs on their own lands, while the fierce horsemen sank to the level of peasants with special military obligations.
Despite the heritage of Peter and Catherine, by the time of Nicholas II (1894-1917) Russia was in disarray, fighting an onerous war and plagued by internal misery and oppression. The Kerensky provisional government, a moderate attempt to resolve the problems, collapsed in the face of the Bolshevik revolution. Given the Bolshevik desire to dominate the whole of Russia and the rest of the former tsarist empire, civil war was inevitable. Stalin would complete the consolidation of Communist power begun by Lenin. And he would lead Soviet Russia through the greatest threat to its existence, and help it emerge as one of the world's superpowers following the Second World War.
But in the ensuing Cold War, Russia's economy tottered towards collapse. The people turned to Boris Yeltsin, a liberal Party functionary. Elections to the Congress of People's Deputies in March 1989 saw him score a stunning victory. He used his newfound legitimacy to promote Russian sovereignty, to advocate and adopt radical economic reform, to demand Gorbachev's resignation, and to negotiate treaties with the Baltic republics, in which he acknowledged their right to secede from the union. An ill-conceived, ill-planned, and poorly executed coup attempt to unseat Yeltsin occurred August 1991, bringing an end to the Communist Party and accelerating the movement to disband the Soviet Union. Yeltsin dissolved the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics in December 1991, banned the Communist Party in Russia and seized all of its property.

CHINESE

The Chinese are militaristic and industrious. They start the game with Warrior Code and Masonry and build riders instead of normal knights.

Despite political and social upheavals that frequently ravaged the country, China is unique for its longevity and resilience as a politico-cultural entity. Most of China's cultural progress has been accomplished with relatively little outside influence; even when the country was ruled by such "barbarian" peoples as the Chin or Mongols, these were soon absorbed into the fabric of Chinese culture. The casting of bronze and the development of an alphabet date from the period of the Shang dynasty - China's first, believed to have dominated north China from the mid-16th to mid-11th century BC. The overthrow of the Shang dynasty by the Chou (1111-255 BC) spanned three generations; although the vibrant Chou culture produced some of history's greatest philosophers and artists, among them Confucius and Lao-zi, it was eventually supplanted by a "barbarian" invasion that established the brief Ch'in Empire (221-206 BC). The subsequent Han dynasty was founded by Liu Pang, who assumed the title of emperor in 202 BC. The four centuries of the Han was one of considerable changes in imperial, political, cultural and social development, as well as massive engineering projects (including the Great Wall), and established a Chinese identity that would survive until the advent of Communism.
By the end of the 2nd century AD the Han Empire had virtually ceased to exist, followed by a lengthy period of rival kingdoms that did not end until 618 AD, when the T'ang dynasty came to power. The T'ang were followed by the Sung dynasties (960-1279 AD), which collapsed in the face of the Mongol invasions. By securing the allegiance of the Hsi Hsia in Tibet (1209), Genghis Khan disposed of a potential enemy and prepared the ground for an invasion of China. For several years Mongol armies pillaged the country; finally, in 1214 Genghis overwhelmed the capital of the northern Chin (modern Beijing). During the next decades there was an uneasy truce between the Mongols in the north and the Sung state in the south. The Mongols resumed their advance in 1250 under Kublai Khan, grandson of Genghis. >From 1267 onward, the Mongols, this time assisted by the armored horsemen Riders and auxiliary troops of north China, attacked on several fronts. When organized resistance ceased soon afterward, foreign invaders controlled the whole of China for the only time in history.
The Mongols occupied China for a century, but ineptitude on the throne, factionalism at court, and rivalries among generals weakened their rule. Out of this turmoil emerged a new native dynasty, the Ming (1368-1644), known for patronage of the arts. The Ming were followed by the Manchus (1644-1911), the last imperial dynasty of China, marked by continuous warfare, Western imperialism, rampant corruption and bureaucratic ineptitude. In the wake of the disastrous Boxer Rebellion, the imperial court could no longer maintain support among the peasantry and army; revolution (1911-1912) followed. The first half of the 20th century saw the disintegration of the old order in China and the foundations of a new society, begun by the short-lived democratic Republic (1912-1920), which quickly degenerated into the dictatorship of Yuan Shih-k'ai. A new revolution, led by the Nationalist Party (KMT) and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), erupted. Although united against the Japanese invasion, by the end of World War II civil war raged in China. Nationalists and Communists raced to take over Japanese-held territories, built up their forces, and fought limited engagements while still conducting negotiations; during 1947-1948, after initial Nationalist victories, the strategic balance shifted in favor of the Communists. Four years after Japan's surrender, a profound and popularly based revolution had swept China, and, in October 1949 Mao Tse-tung proclaimed the People's Republic of China. In 1966, the Communists launched the disastrous "Cultural Revolution," a ten-year assault on "traditional values" and "bourgeois thinking" which ultimately left the country in disarray. After Mao's death in 1976, his rival Deng Xiaopeng assumed power and began social and economic reforms that would see China return to world prominence.

AMERICAN

The Americans are expansionist and industrious. They start the game with Pottery and Masonry and build F-15s instead of normal jet fighters.

The United States is relatively young by Civilization standards, being barely more than 200 years old; it achieved its current size and influence only in the mid-20th century. America was the first of the European colonies to separate successfully from its motherland, and it was the first nation to be established on the premise that sovereignty rests with its citizens and not with the government. In its first century and a half, the country was mainly preoccupied with its own territorial exploration and expansion and with economic growth. American politics became increasingly democratic during the 1820s and '30s. But a matter of freedom would bring the nation to its greatest crisis: the American Civil War. On February 4, 1861 - a month before Abraham Lincoln (1860-1865) could be inaugurated in Washington - six Southern states sent representatives to Montgomery to declare a new independent government. With Jefferson Davis at its head, the Confederate States of America came into being, set up its own bureaus and offices, occupied federal buildings, issued its own money, raised its own taxes, and flew its own flag.
With the Union preserved, the nation entered a period of unprecedented prosperity after the long conflict and reconstruction. In the ensuing two decades industrial production, the number of industrial workers, and the number of factories all more than doubled. European immigration, westward expansion, urban growth, technological advances and a host of American inventions - including the telephone, typewriter, linotype, phonograph, electric light, cash register, air brake, refrigerator car, and the automobile - contributed to the American explosion, while widespread use of corporate organization offered new opportunities for large-scale financing of business enterprise and attracted new capital.
Militarily speaking, the Spanish-American War of 1898 was so brief and relatively bloodless as to have been a mere passing episode in the history of modern warfare, but it catapulted the United States into the world arena. Before the 1890s, roughly speaking, most Americans had stubbornly adhered to the belief, as old as the Revolution itself, that their country should remain aloof from European affairs and offer an example of democracy and peace to the rest of the world. But the United States had become a great power by virtue of its prodigious economic growth since the Civil War; now many thought it ought to begin to act like one.
In World War I, and again in World War II, American industrial might and military technology proved decisive. However, the debacle of Vietnam, set in the morass of the Cold War, shook America's belief in its "victory culture" and "manifest destiny," a malaise that would not pass for 20 years. Lasting but 40 days, the Gulf War was easily won by the U.S.-led coalition at only slight material and human cost, but its sophisticated weapons - spearheaded by the American F-15 fighters - caused heavy damage to Iraq's military and economic infrastructure. With the declining power (and subsequent collapse in 1991) of the Soviet Union, the war also emphasized the role of the United States as the world's single superpower at the beginning of the 21st century, its culture and technology spreading around the globe.

JAPANESE

The Japanese are religious and militaristic. They start the game with Ceremonial Burial and The Wheel and build samurai instead of knights.

It is not known when humans first settled on the Japanese archipelago, but the Jomon people might be called proto-Japanese, and they were spread throughout the archipelago by 250 BC. The Yayoi culture that arose in Kyushu, while the Jomon culture was still evolving, spread gradually eastward, overwhelming the Jomon. Culturally, the Yayoi represents a notable advance and flourished for some five or six centuries, from the 3rd century BC to the 3rd century AD. The unification of Japan under the Yamato court, with the tenno ("Emperor of Heaven") at its center, occurred around the mid-4th century. The 6th century reign of Kentai (507-531 AD) represents a decline of Yamato influence both at home and abroad; the period can be characterized by the growing accumulation of power by regional leaders and a weakening of royal influence.
After the Onin War, the power of independent local leaders increased markedly, and in many instances deputies of great shugo houses usurped the domains of their superiors; a new type of feudal lord, the daimyo, took their place. This Sengoku ("Warring States") period was marked by constant conflict among many such lords. The Yamato court was resuscitated by efforts made within the royal family itself, primarily the reforms of Prince Shotoku, who drafted the Seventeen-Article Constitution of 604 AD. The death of Shotoku in 622 prevented his Confucian ideals of government from bearing full fruit when the Soga family, regaining its former power, executed Shotoku's son Yamashiro and all his family in 643. Two years later, princes Nakano and Nakatomi engineered a coup d'état within the palace, killing the Soga family and wiping out all forces opposed to the imperial family. They then set about establishing a system of centralized government with the emperor as absolute monarch that would last 1000 years.
In the late Heian period, the more powerful of the Samurai gathered in or near the capital, where they served both the military needs of the emperor and also as bodyguards for the great noble houses. Emerging from provincial warrior bands, the aristocratic Samurai caste of the Kamakura period (1192-1333), with their military skills and deep pride in their stoicism, developed a disciplined culture distinct from the earlier, quiet refinement of the imperial court.
Under the growing influence of Zen Buddhism during the Muromachi period (1338-1573), the samurai culture produced many uniquely Japanese arts that continue today. Eventually, from among these warring Samurai clans arose the able Tokugawa Takechiyo, founder of the Edo shogunate (1603-1867 AD), which ended the incessant conflicts and brought reform and peace to the islands. Although Spanish and Portuguese traders and missionaries had been in Japan since the mid-1500s, it was the arrival of a squadron of U.S. warships commanded by Commodore Matthew C. Perry in Uraga Bay in July 1853 that finally opened the nation to Western influence - and brought pressure for political reforms and a national identity. The Meiji government that followed the overthrow of the shogunate set about the task of westernization and the creation of a modern state, and moved Japan onto the world stage.
Ironically, Japan's new, influential role - marked by the ensuing Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905), Japan's involvement in the First World War and in the Allied intervention in Siberia following the Bolshevik Revolution of 1918 - led indirectly to the attack on Pearl Harbor and the horrors that followed. The summer of 1945 brought disaster for the Japanese: the Americans took Okinawa in a bloody invasion, in August the Soviet Union declared war and swept over Manchuria, and atomic bombs largely destroyed the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki on August 6 and 9, respectively. The Pacific War came to an end on August 14, with the formal surrender signed on September 2 in Tokyo Bay aboard the battleship USS Missouri. With postwar American aid, from 1952 to 1973 Japan experienced accelerated economic growth and social change. By the 1990s, Japan was again a first-class power, the senior partner in the emerging Asian economic bloc.

FRENCH

The French are commercial and industriousStrengths>. They start the game with Masonry and The Alphabet and build musketeers instead of musketmen.

Modern France has its roots in ancient Gaul. In the 2nd century BC Rome intervened on the side of Massilia (Marseilles), a Greek colony founded in 600 BC, in its struggle against the barbarian tribes of the hinterland. The result was the formation, in 121 BC, of the Roman Provincia; between 58 to 50 BC Caesar seized the remainder. From 395 the internal problems of the Empire encouraged barbarian penetration of Transalpine Gaul. By 418, the Franks and Burgundians were established west of the Rhine, and the Visigoths had settled in Aquitaine. The period of the Merovingian and Carolingian Frankish dynasties (476-887) frames the Early Middle Ages.
Following his ascension, the first Merovingian, Clovis (481-511), consolidated the position of the Franks in northern Gaul. Clovis came to believe that his victories were due to the Christian God. Clovis' subsequent conversion assured the Frankish rulers of the support not only of the Catholic Church but of the majority of their own subjects. By the rise of the house of Valois in 1328, France was the most powerful kingdom in Europe. Its ruler could muster larger armies than rivals; he could tap enormous fiscal resources; and the king's courts maintained royal supremacy. The history of France in the Late Middle Ages is dominated by efforts of its kings to maintain their suzerainty, efforts that, despite French advantages, were long frustrated.
The Hundred Years War was an intermittent struggle between England and France in the 14th-15th centuries over a series of dynastic disputes, including the legitimate succession to the French crown. The war's turning point was reached in 1429, when an English army was forced to raise its siege of Orléans by a relief force organized by Joan of Arc. Her insistence that only consecration at Reims could make a true king, chosen by God, led to further victories. Charles III was anointed in Reims in July 1429. By 1453, England retained only Calais, which it finally relinquished in 1558.
With the ascension of the infant Louis XIII (1610-1643), the security of the country was again threatened as factions disputed the throne. Crown and country, however, were rescued by the most controversial figure of the Bourbon dynasty: Armand-Jean du Plessis, Cardinal de Richelieu. He proved an indefatigable servant of the French crown, intent on securing absolute obedience to the monarchy and on raising its international prestige through the military prowess of the King’s elite Musketeers. Under the last Bourbons, France became the industrial and commercial center of Europe.
These developments, although significant by themselves, gave rise to a still more momentous change: the French Enlightenment, a cultural transformation based on rationalism, empiricism, and an amorphous concept of freedom found in the influential writings of Rousseau (1712-78). Hence, what began in 1787 as a conflict between royal authority and aristocrats became a triangular struggle, with "the masses" opposing both absolutism and privilege. By any standard, the fall of the Bastille to the Parisian crowd was a monumental event, a seemingly miraculous triumph of the people. But the Revolution soon degenerated in a reign of terror and chaos. Unlike others before him, Napoleon terminated the bloodshed, but at the price of suppressing freedom altogether. In utter contrast to the Revolution, militarism became the defining quality of the Napoleonic regime. However, the revolutionary fervor of the French citizenry was undiminished by the Napoleonic experience, and led to further revolutions in 1830 and 1848, the latter leading to the Second Republic followed by the Second Empire (1852-1870).
Following defeat in the Franco-Prussia War, the Third Republic was formed - surviving the First World War but collapsing in the face of the German invasion in 1940. The period of the short-lived Fourth Republic (1947-59) was succeeded by the Fifth, adopted in September 1958 by popular referendum.

INDIAN

The Indians are commercial and religious. They start the game with Ceremonial Burial and The Alphabet and build war elephants instead of knights.

The Indian subcontinent is the home of one of the world's oldest and most influential civilizations. From about 5000 BC, increasing numbers of settlements of subsistence agriculturalists began to appear throughout the Indus Valley; by 2600 BC some of these villages grew into urban centers, forming the basis for the early Harappan civilization, the peer of contemporary Egyptian and Babylonian civilizations. However, unlike these regions, centralized imperialism, which was attempted in the Mauryan Period (325-185 BC), collapsed. Nonetheless, the ascension of Chandra Gupta Maurya (321-297 BC) is significant because it inaugurated the first Indian empire; the Mauryan dynasty was to rule almost the entire subcontinent except the southern coasts.
Using War Elephants to good effect, he defeated Alexander's successor Seleucus, the ruler of the eastern Greek holdings in Iran and India. The result was a treaty by which Seleucus ceded the trans-Indus provinces to Chandra and the latter presented Seleucus with 500 elephants for his own army. A century later, the disintegration of the Mauryan empire gave rise to a number of feuding kingdoms, the Guptas and Pajputs in the north and Chola, Hoysalas and Pandyas in the south, unable to stand alone against the coming Islamic tide.
The first Arabic raids in the subcontinent were made along the western coast and in Sind during the 7th and 8th centuries, and there had been Muslim trading communities in India for decades before. The permanent military movement of Muslims into northern India, however, dates from the late 12th century and was carried out by the Turkish dynasty that arose on the ruins of the Abbasid caliphate. Sultan Mahmud, who conducted more than 20 campaigns in India from 1001 to 1027 AD and established a large but short-lived empire, laid the road to conquest. By 1186 AD, the Mahmud realm had been destroyed by the Ghurids, who proceeded to conquer the Rajput kingdoms and establish a Muslim sultanate in Delhi, from which a series of able Turkish overlords ruled the north until 1526 AD. The Muslim states were themselves supplanted by the Mughul Empire (1526-1761 AD), founded by Zahir-ud-Din Muhammad Babur (1526-1530 AD). Babur was a Mongol, a fifth-generation descendant of Timur and a 14th-generation descendant of Genghis Khan. In a lightning series of campaigns commencing in 1511 AD, he overran the Punjab and Hindustan. Akbar the Great (1556-1605 AD), his grandson, continued the conquest of the subcontinent, overrunning Gujarat, Bengal and Rajasthan. At its zenith, the Mughal realm commanded resources unprecedented in Indian history and covered almost the entire subcontinent.
The 16th and 17th centuries also saw the establishment and expansion of European trading organizations in the subcontinent, principally for the procurement of rare resources. By 1740, the Portuguese, Dutch, English and French had all founded colonial settlements, but with the Seven Years' War the French holdings were surrendered to the British East India Company. The quarter-century following the bitter Indian revolt of 1857-59, which transferred the company's rule to the crown, ended with the birth of nationalist agitation.
The Indian National Congress held its first meeting in December 1885 in Bombay even as Indian troops were fighting in upper Burma under the British flag. Mohandas Gandhi (1869-1948), later known as Mahatma ("Great-Souled"), was recognized throughout India as the spiritual leader of a nationwide movement for independence. The Jallianwala Bagh (1919) massacre turned millions of moderate Indians from patient and loyal supporters of the British raj into fervent nationalists. The last years of British rule were racked by increasingly violent Hindu-Muslim conflict and intensified opposition to foreign rule. In July 1947, Britain's Parliament passed the Indian Independence Act, ordering the demarcation of the dominions of India and Pakistan by midnight of August 14, 1947, and dividing within a single month the assets of history's largest and richest colony.

PERSIAN

The Persians are industrious and scientific. They start the game with Masonry and Bronze Working and build Persian Immortals instead of swordsmen.

The term Persia has been used for centuries, chiefly in the West, to designate a region of southern Iran formerly known as Persis or Parsa; the name of the Indo-European nomadic people who migrated into the region about 1000 BC, eventually supplanting the Assyrians and Chaldeans. The first mention of the Parsa occurs in the annals of Shalmanesar III, an Assyrian king, in 844 BC. Cyrus II (559-529 BC), heir to a long line of ruling chiefs in Mesopotamia, was a tolerant and venerated monarch, called the father of his people by the ancient Persians. After a successful revolt against his Achaemenian overlords in 550 BC and inheriting the kingdom of the Medes, Cyrus consolidated his rule on the Iranian Plateau and extended it westward across Asia Minor.
In October 539 BC, Babylon, the greatest city of the ancient world, fell to his Persian forces. Following the death of Cyrus' heir, Darius I (522-486 BC), a leading general and one of the princes of the Achaemenid family, proclaimed himself king following suppression of a number of provincial rebellions and challenges from other pretenders to the throne. Darius was in the mold of Cyrus the Great - a powerful personality and a dynamic ruler. To consolidate his accession, Darius I founded his new capital of Parsa, known to the Greeks as Persepolis ("Persian City") and expanded the ranks of his personal bodyguard, the Immortals.
Although Darius consolidated and added to the conquests of his predecessors, it was as an administrator that he made his greatest contribution to Persian history. During his reign, political and legal reforms revitalized the provinces and ambitious projects were undertaken to promote imperial trade and commerce: coinage, weights and measures were standardized, and new land and sea routes explored and established.
Such activities, however, did not prevent Darius from following an active expansionist policy. Campaigns in the east confirmed gains made by Cyrus the Great and added large sections of the northern Indian subcontinent to the list of Persian-controlled provinces. Expansion to the west began about 516 BC when Darius moved against the Greek colonies along the coast of Asia Minor.
Xerxes (486-465 BC), son and successor of Darius I, was determined to continue the Persian conquest of the west and is best known for his massive invasion of Greece from across the Hellespont in 480 BC, a campaign marked by the battles of Thermopylae, Salamis and Plataea. Although successful in the pacification of Egypt and suppression of a Babylon revolt, his defeat by the allied Greek city-states spelled the beginning of the decline of the Persian Empire. Soured by these reversals, Xerxes retired to his palaces at Susa and Persepolis. In his last years, he squandered the once-enormous treasury he had gathered through trade and taxation by launching vast construction programs, most never finished.
The death of Xerxes was the final turning point in Persian influence. Occasional flashes of vigor and ability by some of Xerxes' successors were too infrequent to prevent eventual collapse. The final act was played out during the reign Darius II (423-404 BC), who rose to the throne through palace intrigue. Darius was able to put down yet another rebellion in Egypt in 337-336 BC, but the beginning of the end came soon afterward with his defeat at the Battle of Granicus (334 BC) by Alexander the Great. Persepolis fell to the young Macedonian conqueror in April 330 BC, and Darius, the last Achaemenid, was murdered in the summer of the same year while fleeing the Greek forces. In the struggle for power after Alexander's death, Seleucus I brought under his control the Persian provinces of Alexander's empire. But this unity was short-lived, as the Indian holdings successfully revolted and the Seleucid kingdom broke into the competing nations of Parthia and Bactria. The last vestiges of Persian culture disappeared with the advent of Islam and the Arab conquest (640-829 AD) of Iran.

AZTECS

The Aztecs are militaristic and agricultural. They start the game with Warrior Code and Pottery and build Jaguar warriors instead of normal warriors.

The origin of the Aztec people is uncertain, but elements of their own tradition suggest that they were a tribe of hunter-gatherers on the northern Mexican plateau before their appearance in Meso-America in the 12th century. The Aztec were so called for Aztlán ("White Land"), an allusion to their origins in northern Mexico. It is possible that their migration southward was part of a general movement of peoples that followed, or perhaps helped trigger, the collapse of the Toltec civilization. The Aztecs settled on islands in Lake Texcoco and in 1325 founded Tenochtitlán, which remained their chief city. The basis of the Aztec's success in creating a great state and ultimately an empire was their remarkable system of agriculture, which featured intensive cultivation of all available land, as well as elaborate systems of irrigation and reclamation of swampland. The high productivity gained by these methods made for a rich and populous state. The empire the Aztecs established was equaled in the New World only by that of the Incas of Peru, and the brilliance of their civilization is comparable to that of other great ancient cultures of the New and the Old World.
Under a succession of ambitious kings they established a dominion that eventually stretched over most of present-day Mexico. By commerce and conquest, Tenochtitlán came to rule an empire of 400 to 500 small states, comprising by 1519 some five- to six-million people spread over 80,000 square miles. Valor in war, notably in the feared Jaguar Warrior formations, was the surest path to advancement in Aztec society, which was caste- and class-divided but nonetheless vertically fluid. The priestly and bureaucratic classes were involved in the administration of the empire, while at the bottom of society were classes of serfs, indentured servants, and outright slaves. The incredible story of a wandering tribe that was able to build an empire in one century (from the beginning of the 14th century to the beginning of the 15th) can be largely explained by three main factors: the Aztec religion, the thriving trade routes centered on Tenochtilán, and Aztec military organization. In 1502 the ninth emperor Montezuma II (1502-1520) succeeded his uncle Ahuitzotl as the leader of an empire that had reached its greatest extent, stretching from what is now northern Mexico to Honduras and Nicaragua. The Aztec empire was still expanding, and its society still evolving, when its progress was halted in 1519 by the appearance of Spanish adventurers. Montezuma was taken prisoner by Hernándo Cortés and died in custody. Montezuma's successors, Cuitláhuac and Cuauhtémoc, were unable to stave off the conquistadors and, with the Spanish sack of Tenochtitlán in 1521, the Aztec empire came to an end.

ZULU

The Zulus are expansionist and militaristic. They start the game with Warrior Code and Pottery and build Impi instead of normal spearmen.

The Zulu are a tribe of Nguni-speaking people centered in what is now the Natal province of South Africa. They are a branch of the southern Bantu and have close ethnic, linguistic and cultural ties with the Swazi and Xhosa. Before they overwhelmed the neighboring tribes under their leader Shaka in the early 19th century to form an empire, the Zulu were only one of the many patrilineal Nguni clans in the Mtetwa empire. Traditionally grain farmers, the Zulu also kept large herds of cattle on the lightly wooded grasslands, replenishing their herds by raiding neighboring tribes. Boys in Shaka's militaristic society were initiated at adolescence in groups called age sets. Each age set constituted a unit of the Zulu army and was stationed away from home at royal barracks under direct control of the King. Formed into regiments (Impi), these men could marry and leave service only when the king gave permission to the age set as a whole.
On the death of the last Mtetwa emperor in 1817, Shaka (1816-28) established his clan's dominance over their neighbors and, using a well-disciplined and efficient fighting force, conquered most of the Natal region. During the reign of Shaka's successor, Dingane, Boer settlers, who formed an alliance with Dingane's brother and deposed him in 1840, penetrated the Zulu empire. The empires survived, but under King Mpande (1840-72) portions of Zulu territory were occupied by the Boers and by the British, who moved into Natal in 1838 and annexed it in 1843. War broke out in 1878 when Mpande's successor, Cetshwayo, refused to disband his Impi and to place himself under British control. Despite stiff resistance, the British defeated the poorly armed Zulu in July 1879, occupied the remainder of their country, and divided Zululand into 13 small kingdoms. Zululand was made a British crown colony in 1887 under the Native Law of Natal, and bloody Zulu rebellions were put down in 1888 and 1906. By British edict in 1894, two-thirds of the Zulu's remaining land was confiscated, and they were confined to native reserves. The incorporation of Zululand into Natal in 1897 ended its separate existence. Under the apartheid system, a Bantu Homeland (later called a "black state") named KwaZulu was established for the Zulu in the 1970s and was composed of discrete areas of historical Zululand. With the abolition of the apartheid system, KwaZulu in 1994 was reincorporated into Natal province. The Zulu were the single largest ethnic group in modern South Africa and now number about nine million.

IROQUOIS

The Iroquois are agricultural and commercial. They start the game with Alphabet and Pottery and build mounted warriors instead of normal horsemen.

Loosely speaking, Iroquois is the term for any member of the Five (later, Six) Nations composed of several Native American tribes speaking a language of the Iroquoian family: the Cayuga, Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Seneca, and Tuscarora (after 1722). At its greatest extent, the Five Nations occupied a vast territory around Lakes Ontario, Huron and Erie, in present-day New York state and Pennsylvania and southern Ontario and Quebec. Tradition credits the formation of the Iroquois Confederacy, forged between 1570 and 1600, to Dekanawidah, born a Huron, who is said to have persuaded Hiawatha, an influential Onondaga who had become the Mohawks' war chief, to abandon cannibalism and advance "peace, civil authority, righteousness, and the great law" as sanctions for confederation. Cemented mainly by their desire to stand together against invasion, the five tribes united in a common council composed of clan and village chiefs; each tribe had one vote, and unanimity was the rule. In this form, the Iroquois used a combination of military prowess and skilled diplomacy to conquer an empire. Until their internal unity finally failed them during the American Revolution, the Iroquois dealt with even the European powers as equals.
For nearly two centuries before the American Revolution, the Iroquois stood athwart the path from the Eastern coast to the Great Lakes, blocking the route to permanent settlement by the French and containing the Dutch and the English. Throughout the 18th century the Six Nations remained consistent and bitter enemies of the French, who were allied with their traditional foes, the Algonquins and Hurons. The Iroquois' success in maintaining their autonomy from both the French and English was a remarkable achievement for an aboriginal people. But during the American War of Independence, a schism developed within the Iroquois Confederation. The Oneida and Tuscarora espoused the American cause, while the rest of the league, led by Chief Joseph Brant's Mohawks, fought for the British, decimating isolated American settlements. Eventually, the villages, fields, orchards and granaries, as well as the morale of the Iroquois, were destroyed in 1779 when Major-General John Sullivan led a retaliatory expedition of 4000 American regulars, and crushed their assembled warriors near present-day Elmira. Having finally acknowledged defeat in the Second Treaty of Fort Stanwix (1784), the Iroquois Confederacy effectively came to an end by ceding western Pennsylvania, New York and Kentucky to the United States. At the end of the Revolutionary War, there were less than 8000 Iroquois left. Even the 1940 U.S. census listed only 17,000 Iroquois in both the United States and Canada, but current figures approach 70,000 in about twenty settlements on eight reservations in New York, Wisconsin, Oklahoma, Ontario and Quebec.

ENGLISH

The British are seafaring and commercial. They start the game with The Alphabet and Pottery and build men-o-war instead of frigates.

In Roman times Britain lay on the periphery of the civilized world, and it emerged into the light of history only after the Saxon settlements in the 5th century AD. Tribal migrations into Britain began about the middle of the 5th century. The first arrivals were invited by a British chieftain to defend his kingdom against the Picts and Scots. The first mercenaries were from three tribes - the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes - which located on the coastlands of northwestern Germany. Eventually, these peoples would themselves topple the native kingdoms. But unity was fleeting; the subsequent Norman Conquest (1066) resulted in the subordination of England to a Frankish aristocracy, and the introduction of feudalism to the Isles.
The English Normans would eventually give rise to a purely British line of kings, the Plantagenets. Three centuries later, the Wars of the Roses was the final struggle between the Yorkist and Lancastrian descendants of the Plantagenets for control of the throne. When Henry Tudor, earl of Richmond, seized the crown in 1485, leaving the Yorkist Richard III dead upon the field of battle, few Englishmen would have predicted that 118 years of Tudor rule had begun. Elizabeth I (1558-1603) proved to be the most able Tudor monarch. No observer in 1558, any more than in 1485, would have predicted that despite the social discord, political floundering, and international humiliation of the past decades, the kingdom again stood on the threshold of an extraordinary age. Her reign ushered in two centuries of British exploration, colonization, artistic and intellectual advances. When Elizabeth, the "Virgin Queen," died childless, Parliament offered the crown to the closest blood kin, James VI of Scotland (1603-1625) and the United Kingdom was born, defended by the "wooden wall" of the Royal Navy’s Men-o-War.
Every major war Britain engaged in during this period increased its colonial power. The Seven Years' War was particularly notable in this respect, and so were the Napoleonic Wars. By 1820 the total population of the British Empire was 200 million, 26% of the world's total population. However acquired, all these acquisitions added to the crown’s and the country's power and reputation. For the privileged and the rich, the Victorian era was pre-eminently one of confidence and arrogance, under the able guidance of Britain’s two Prime Ministers, Gladstone and Disraeli. But the "long summer of peace" came to an end in the bloodbath of Flanders. Although Britain suffered far less physical damage than France and underwent no political revolution, World War I may have affected it more fundamentally than any other European power. The war was a catalyst for social and economic change. The mainstays of the Industrial Revolution, such as coal mining, textile production, and shipbuilding, upon which British prosperity had been built, were now impoverished or redundant. British foreign policy for much of the postwar period aimed at rehabilitating Germany, while domestic policy focused on institutionalizing socialism to counter public concerns. In general, these movements were opposed by France and resulted in a rupture between Britain and its wartime ally, forcing France into a position of isolation that would have prodigious consequences for Europe with the rise of Hitler in the 1930s. Margaret Thatcher (1979-1990) set out to end socialism in Britain. Her most dramatic acts consisted of a continuing series of statutes to denationalize nearly every industry that Labour had brought into public ownership during the previous 40 years. Promising that "we shall govern as New Labour," the Blair government installed in general elections in 1997 accepted some of Thatcher's foreign policies but also carried out the economic reforms it promised in its manifesto. In retrospect, the 1990s were a period of transition, controversy and continuity in the United Kingdom, and for the royal family... Europe’s oldest surviving monarchy.

Mongols

The Mongols are expansionist and militaristic. They start the game with Warrior Code and Pottery and build Keshik horse archers instead of knights.

The history of the Mongol tribe began with the birth of Temujin, born in c.1167 AD in the wild steppe-land of Mongolia, which is bordered by Modern Day China and Russia. When Temujin was nine years old, tribal rivals poisoned and murdered his father Yesugei, creating a power vacuum in the tribe that resulted in the exile of young Temujin and his family as fugitives. In time Temujin would return to claim his inheritance, forge political alliances, and vanquish old rivals. In 1204 AD he summoned a kuriltai war council and proceeded to unite all local nomad tribes by force. It was at this time he received the title 'Genghis Khan', meaning 'Great Ruler'.
China, at the time, was divided by three sects: the Ch'in, who were the most powerful, reigned in the north at Peking; the Sung occupied the South; and the Hsi-Hsia, the weakest of the 3, inhabited the western flank of the Great Wall.
The Mongol conquest against China began in 1211 AD when the consolidated tribes of the Great Khan struck at the Hsi-Hsia, with tremendous success. Not impressed with the defeat of his weaker neighbor, the new Emperor of Ch'in insisted on a public display of servitude from Temujin. Temujin reacted by ordering a general advance against the Ch'in Empire. The resulting war lasted for approximately 23 years, and ended in the complete destruction of the Ch'in. During this campaign Temujin ensured that the epic war upon the Ch'in did not occupy all of his resources and time; there were older enemies to address.
Amid the war against the Ch'in the Mongols also rallied against the Kara-Khitay, one of the original Kuchlug tribes that had fled from defeat during Temujin's war of unification. Victory over the Kara-Khitay provided the Mongols a common frontier with the Shah of Khwarizm, who ruled a large Muslim state that stretched from modern day Iran to the southern Soviet Union as far as the Caspian and Aral seas. In 1219 AD the Mongol horde gathered for the first of several large operations against Muslim and Persian enemies. After defeating the Shah, the Mongols had access to Russia. Not content with remaining a peaceful neighbor, Temujin permitted his generals to lead an extraordinary campaign into southern Russia, which would be staged largely in the winter months. Three years, and numerous victories later, they returned to rendezvous with the main Mongol force and to contribute in the war against the Ch'in and their Muslim enemies.
Mongol children were taught to ride on horseback from the age of three, and were given bow and arrows to use for hunting at the age of five. Horseback became a natural way for the Mongols to conduct war. When speed was essential, a Mongol rider could even sleep while in the saddle; and by using a system that consisted of approximately four remounts, Temujin's army was capable of traversing 130 miles in two days, with no breaks for food.
Another defining characteristic of a Mongolian army was the speed and voracity with which it was able to accept and prepare for battle. The Mongol's harsh, nomadic lifestyle had prepared them well for the rigors of war; and they often thrived in conditions that would be considered intolerable by any other military of its time. When the need arose they could last up to ten days at a time without cooking food, during which they would sustain themselves by drinking the blood of their horses.
Every victory wrought by the Mongols was followed by slaughters of incredible scale. No citizens, with the exception of those who were useful to the Mongol war effort, were spared in these attacks. In 1221 AD, the Islamic city of Merv was captured; 700,000 were murdered, and a rearguard was assembled to dispatch any citizens who were fortunate enough to have escaped the original slaughter, this was routine for the Mongol army.
By the end of the 13th century Mongol armies had been involved in action in countries including: Poland, Japan, Korea, Hungary, Russia, Palestine, Persia, India, Cambodia, Burma, and Vietnam. After Temujin's death in 1227 five more Khans would follow, including, Kublai Khan, whose triumph was the union of all of China under his rule. However, the death of Kublai Khan in 1294 AD marked the end of an era for Mongol conquests, and the march of Mongol armies was never again resumed, leaving its populace to be absorbed into the sedentary life style of the neighboring people.

Spanish

The Spanish are seafaring and religious. They start the game with Alphabet and Ceremonial Burial and build Conquistadors instead of explorers.

The Kingdom of Spain is located in the extreme southwest of the European continent, and occupies approximately 85-percent of the Iberian Peninsula. Spain is bordered on the west by Portugal, in the Northeast by France, and by the great wall of the Pyrenees Mountains. The Iberian Peninsula that the Spanish inhabited was occupied by various other civilizations, including the Phoenicians, Carthaginians, Romans, Visigoths, and Muslims, and Spain is now associated with having a very rich, eclectic culture as a result.
The development of Christian society and culture in the first 300 years following Islamic conquest in Spain was slow, but major changes occurred for the Spanish in the 12th and 13th centuries. The population grew, communication with northern Europe intensified, commerce and urban life gained in importance, and the kingdoms of the Castile, Aragon, and Navarre, and Portugal emerged as the governing bodies of the Iberian Peninsula. These kingdoms reached the frontiers that they would keep, with minimum amount of alteration, until the end of the Middle Ages, when Isabella I became Queen of Castile.
Isabella began participating in the royal court at the age of 13; and when Portugal, Aragon, and France offered their marriage candidates, she favored Ferdinand of Aragon. Isabella ascended to the throne as Queen of Castile to rule sensibly and with a prudent political program. Her unification of the states of the Iberian Peninsula into a single entity, the maintenance and control over the Strait of Gibraltar, policy of expansion into Muslim North Africa, reform of Spanish Catholicism, and support for the exploration and expansion in the unknown was evidence of her wisdom and capabilities as Queen.
On October 12, 1492 Columbus, with the blessing and financial backing of Isabella, sought a route to the legendary rich markets of China and Japan, but instead discovered what would become known as "The New World", the present day Americas. This voyage gave way to a new golden age of expeditions and conquest, as the Americas contained gold, a valuable resource that Spain happened to be desperately bereft of at the time.

Following Columbus' lead, a Spanish military group known as Los Conquistadores, 'The Conquerors', were directed by Hernan Cortes to the New World with the sole purpose of seeking out new frontiers and riches in the unknown. The Conquistadores undertook their expeditions in the vast landmasses of the Americas at their own expense, risking their lives without aid from the Spanish royalty. Their conquests included campaigns in Guatemala, Peru, Cuzco, Columbia, Chile, the Bay of Honduras, and as far as the Pacific Coastal regions. The Conquistadors, however, were given to fighting and searching for gold, and were swiftly replaced by administrators and settlers from Spain who governed in their place.
Once the Spanish Kingdom established its presence in the Americas their operations inevitably became high-profile targets of pirates and other raiders who were endorsed by European powers such as England. The Monarchy of Spain endeavored to retaliate by building an armada of warships that was dubbed "The Invincible Armada". The armada was a collection of over 130 naval warships and transport-ships, which contained approximately 8,000 seamen and 19,000 soldiers. King Philip II directed this armada to invade England when the various and frequent raids on Spanish commerce in the Caribbean became intolerable. England's success in repelling the Spanish fleet saved England and the Netherlands from potential consolidation into the Spanish empire, but despite the armadas' defeat, the blow dealt by the Spanish upon England's reputation as the greatest European power was palpable.
Thereafter, Spain declined in power quickly; and by the 19th century, Spain became somewhat marginal in international politics. Spain's period of imperial power and exploration left a legacy that consisted of 18 Latin American states, Puerto Rico, and the ever-growing Spanish-speaking population in the United States today. In 1975 Spain transitioned into a constitutional monarchy by way of a democratic constitution and is now recognized for its eclectic culture as well as for the glory and mystique that it once possessed in its youth.

Vikings

The Vikings are militaristic and seafaring. They start the game with Alphabet and Warrior Code and build Berserks instead of Longbowmen.

The suggested reasons for the appearance of the Vikings at the end of the 8th century in Scandinavia are varied. The most logical explanation to date is the possible overpopulation of the region. An explosion in Nordic population throughout Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Denmark during the 7th and 8th centuries may have forced the indigenous people to explore and settle in more favorable territories. In addition, the gradual establishment of government throughout most of Western Europe augmented mercantile trade greatly as well as the opportunities for piracy. At home, these Scandinavians were independent farmers, but at sea or on the fields of war they were some of the fiercest warriors in the world.
The Scandinavian art of shipbuilding evolved during the course of the 8th century and greatly facilitated these early Viking expeditions and raids. The most distinct differences between the Viking ships and their merchant vessel victims, was that the merchant ships were short, broad and relied on sail power, while Viking warships were longer, thinner and had a far greater number of oars and men. This made the Viking ships notably faster, and was instrumental in allowing the Vikings to penetrate long distances up rivers. Small armies of Viking longships negotiated the seas, utilizing hit-and-run tactics on the cities, towns, and villages that dotted the coasts of Europe. These longships were the very tools of Viking expansion. The Vikings were able to raid far afield and subsequently colonize the lands that they plundered.
Viking hordes attacked England at the end of the 8th century, after which followed a period of relative calm that was shattered years later when attacks began anew. At first, the Vikings led nothing more than predatory raids in the summer months in search of booty and slaves, with no attempts at permanent settlement. Beginning in 850 however, there appeared to be changes in Viking strategy, for the first time, Vikings occupied entire villages and regions in the winters following their raids... they had come to stay.

In 865 a massive fleet arrived that carried some of the fiercest Viking leaders, including sons of the Danish King Ragnar Lodbrok ("Hairy-Breeches"), whose family was regarded as representing the very epitome of true Vikings. Ivar the Boneless, Halfdan, and Ubbi (or 'Hubba') brought military ambitions with them. Ragnar's sons captured York at the end of 867; and then proceeded to overrun most of Northumbria, Anglia, and Mercia. Ivar advanced to Dublin to conquer it, later dying in the Battle of Ashdown in 871. Halfdan became the chief leader following Ivar, where he defeated the English at Basing, Meretun, Reading, and Wilton. For the next few years the Vikings concentrated on securing conquests in eastern and northern England. They divided Northumbria and Mercia amongst themselves, and Halfdan followed in Ivar's footsteps in another attempt to secure Dublin from Ireland, only to be defeated by Norwegian Vikings in 877.
The Scandinavian countries seemed to possess an inexhaustible supply of able-bodied warriors and manpower. In land battles Vikings favored overlapping shield-wall formations, which consisted of approximately 5 or more ranks deep of the most heavily armed and armored Vikings forming the exterior of a line, wedge, or circle formation to absorb the brunt of enemy attacks. In the pagan era, before Scandinavia was converted to Christianity, the berserkir warriors were looked upon as possessing supernatural powers attributed to the Viking's chief god, Odin; and a belief in lycanthropy. These warriors were known to rush into battle without armor, as mad as wolves, and as strong as wild boars. This infamous berserkir frenzy reportedly allowed them to kill men in single blows with great bearded axes, and shrug off blows from fire and iron alike. Today it is believed that these frenzies were the result of epileptic attacks.
The era of the Viking lasted only 300 years, ending at approximately 1066AD; around the time of the approximated death of Harald Hardrada, who died heroically in battle. Harald has been dubbed 'the last Viking'. Most remaining Viking conquests and exploits never amounted to those of their predecessors, and Viking lineage gradually integrated into their surrounding civilizations.

Celts

The Celts are agricultural and religious. They start the game with Pottery and Ceremonial Burial and build Gallic Swordsman instead of Swordsmen.

In the 1st century BC, Strabo wrote of the Celts: 'The whole race... is madly fond of war, high-spirited and quick to battle... and on whatever pretext you stir them up, you will have them ready to face danger, even if they have nothing on their side but their own strength and courage'. Much of what we know about Celtic culture today has been derived from the insights of the various writers and geographers of the time; coupled with finds from Celtic burial sights located in Bavaria, Bohemia, and Upper Austria. The Celts once formed a loose-knit 'empire', inhabiting territory that stretched in a chaotic band across central Europe. The writings and findings of modern archeologists place Celtic civilization as ranging from the Atlantic Coast of the British Isles and northern Spain, to as far east as Transylvania and the Black Sea.
The Celts lived as extended families, or clans, which banded together, in order to form larger tribes that would occupy territory together. A Knight and a High Chieftain typically governed these tribes, while a third privileged class known as 'men of art', who are better known today as the Druids and Bards, extolled the feats of Celtic warriors in song and craft. Celtic society was held together by a complex web of family ties and other obligations, within which, the warrior nobles would strive to attain wealth and prestige through agriculture, trade, and success in war; which they often used to create and fund their own family or tribe.
At the age of fourteen, Celtic boys attained manhood and were permitted to bear arms, while girls became eligible for marriage. Young nobles and sons of freemen who reached their fourteenth birthday became clients of a famous lord or well-reputed Celtic Knight. Such warrior retinues were called 'Fianna'. These junior warriors sought out and followed experienced warriors whose success could provide them with greater chances at their own wealth and glory.
While the bulk of a Celtic army would typically consist of poorly armored spearmen, it was the warrior nobles who wielded swords that were the most feared. These Gallic Swordsmen were wealthier than their peers, and could afford to equip themselves not only with their slashing and stabbing sword, but also with a helmet and shield. They often charged into battle bare-chested or completely naked, occasionally wearing vividly patterned pants or cloaks. Similar to the Viking Berserker, they began their battles by viciously taunting their enemies, and followed it with a mad rush against enemy lines. This was standard behavior for skirmishes between clans, which were frequent in Celtic society. These tribal conflicts provided starting points for young Celts who sought to openly display their bravery and skill as a warrior. Celtic warriors were also known to serve as mercenaries to numerous armies of the classical period. The best known of instance of this, is when Celtic mercenaries joined Hannibal in his invasion of Italy during the 2nd Punic War, contributing to victories against Rome.
The Celts' previous capture and sack of Rome, headed by Brennus, also remained an indelible mark on Roman folk memory, and was likely the instigator for Rome's merciless treatment of the Celts in subsequent wars. This mutual hostility did not cease until the Gauls and Britons were later formally incorporated into the Roman Empire.
Despite the writings and other information that paints the Celts as uncultured savages, the relatively sophisticated weapons, pottery, jewelry, and other equipment found at burial sites serves to remind us that they were very far from being the savages they were once depicted as. On the contrary, it in fact appears that the Celts maintained a rich culture that is survived by the modern Celtic and Gallic speakers of Ireland, Highland Scotland, the Isle of Man, Wales and Brittany.

Carthaginians

The Carthaginians are seafaring and industrious. They start the game with Alphabet and Masonry and build Numidian Mercenaries instead of spearmen.

Carthaginians were 8th century BC Phoenician emigrants who fled from the Persian-held city of Tyre and sought to fashion their own identity in the fertile peninsula of northern Africa. The effort of these refugees was realized in the foundation of Carthage. The Romans knew the people of Carthage as "Poeni", a derivation of the word "Phoenicians", from which the adjective "Punic" is also derived. Carthage is located in modern-day Tunisia, bordered by Algeria, Libya, and the Mediterranean Sea. Located roughly center of the triangular Cap Bon peninsula, it is surrounded by low hills and backed by the lake of Tunis, allowing for safe anchorage and an abundant supply of fish. The resulting city site was well protected, and easily defensible. Carthaginian control extended as far southwest as Theveste in northern Algeria; throughout which, a thriving agriculture developed.
The actual stages of growth in Carthaginian power are unknown, but the process was largely complete by the start of the 4th century BC. Ancient sources indicate that Carthage had perhaps become the richest city in the world via trade in perishable goods such as textiles, un-worked metals, food, and slaves. Tin, silver, gold, and iron were obtained in exchange for these manufactured and consumer goods. Carthage maintained a monopoly of trade from the 6th to 3rd century BC by sinking all intruders and exacting recognition of its position from neighboring Mediterranean states. This wealth was attested by the vast mercenary armies it was able to maintain with a mintage of gold coins far exceeding that known for any other advanced state of its time.
While frequently led by Carthaginian soldiers, the majority of the Carthaginian armies was comprised of mercenaries. Celts and Iberians contributed large numbers of infantry and horsemen, but Numidian Infantry dominated their ranks. These Numidian mercenaries were equipped with loot from assorted engagements against Rome, and were generally regarded as capable soldiers and spearmen.
The First Punic War between Rome and Carthage resulted from attempts to garner control over lands and trade routes through Corsica and Sicily. Carthaginians intervened in a dispute between the two principal cities on the Sicilian coast, Messana and Syracuse, in order to establish their presence on the island. Rome responded by attacking Messana, forcing the Carthaginians to withdraw and later surrender, ceding Sicily and the Lipari islands to Rome. The great Carthaginian general, Hamilcar, led Carthage against Rome in the First Punic War, and his son Hannibal was made to swear eternal hostility against Rome at an early age as well. From the death of Hamilcar in 229 BC until his own death in 183 BC, Hannibal's life was one of constant struggle against the Roman Republic. Hannibal made good on his oath by instigating a second Punic war.
During the Second Punic War Hannibal established base in Spain, from which he could wage war against Rome. Hannibal refused Rome's demand to withdraw from the Iberian Peninsula, and Rome renewed war on Carthage once again. Rome controlled the Sea, forcing Hannibal to lead his army overland through Spain, Gaul, and the Alps to reach Rome. After this spectacular achievement, Hannibal undermined Rome through battlefield tactics and shrewd political maneuvering. Once Hannibal's hold over northern Italy was established he maintained it until 203 BC, when he was ordered to return to Africa. Roman forces maintained pressure on Carthaginian strongholds, however, and eventually forced the Carthaginians out of Spain. Carthage accepted the terms of peace, surrendering its navy and ceded Spain as well as the Mediterranean islands to Rome.
The first and second Punic wars effectively deprived Carthage of its political power, but did nothing to quell its commercial trade, which continued to expand rapidly. This inevitably drew the envy of Rome's growing mercantile community, and was reason enough for the Roman Republic to goad the people of Carthage into one final war. Despite determined and ingenious resistance against a siege that lasted for two years, Carthage fell. The third and final war between the Roman Republic and the Carthaginians resulted in the final destruction of Carthage, the enslavement of its population, and Roman hegemony over the western Mediterranean.

Ottomans

The Ottomans are scientific and industrious. They start the game with Masonry and Bronze Working and build Sipahi instead of cavalry.

Fables and legends that feature the origins of the Ottoman Empire indicate that Osman, a Turkish tribesman, was the original ruler responsible for founding the civilization that nearly brought Christian Europe to its knees. Narratives indicate that Osman's tribe, the Kayi, fled west from the Mongols in the 13th century and took control of a freebooting army of nomads and Muslim peasants who inhabited the rugged stretch of wasteland along the Byzantine frontier. This band of refugees enjoyed close ties to Muslim guilds and religious brotherhoods in local towns that were led by Sheikh Edebali, who allowed Osman to form a tiny state around his castle of Karacahisar. Turkish warriors and religious leaders who also fled from the pagan Mongols in the east quickly populated this region, ruled by Osman. Osman directed his community through the Kara Su valley to seize Yenisehir, and establish it as the first true Ottoman capital. The Ottoman state emerged, poised above the fertile shores of the Sea of Marmara.
Osman continued to wage a slow but persistent war against the Byzantine Empire who endeavored to defend their territories along the Asiatic shores that were opposite of Constantinople (now Istanbul). His first victory over a Byzantine army at Koyunhisar in 1301 AD perpetuated Osman's fame, and settlers flocked to Ottoman territory as a result. Osman extended his control over several other Byzantine fortresses, providing the Ottomans with strong bases from which they could lay siege to Bursa and Nicaea in northwest Anatolia. The pinnacle of Osman's reign occurred at the conquest of Bursa shortly before his death.
Initially, Ottoman war tactics were no different than those used by the tribal Turks. They would first harass the foe with horse-archers, employing hit and run tactics, only closing in on the enemy when they became completely disorganized. Thus, the earliest Ottoman successes were won against isolated Byzantine garrisons, but rarely against a field army. In order to capture fortified towns the Ottomans ravaged the countryside and imposed blockades. Afterwards, the Ottomans would revive the town's trade and increase its population so that it could then be consolidated into the Empire as a productive and functioning city. During their earliest exploits, the Ottomans were frequently frustrated by fortifications and the exhausting sieges that were required in order to overcome these defenders. This changed in the 15th century and beyond as imported expertise in firearms and gunpowder led to some of the most massive artillery of the time. A form of Turkish heavy cavalry, known as Sipahi, became the predominating military unit utilized by the Ottoman Empire. The earliest variations of these soldiers were well-armored men on well-armored horses, who typically used a mace as their primary weapon. During the 17th century the Sipahi replaced their archaic weaponry with sabers and pistols, establishing them as a fearsome presence on the battlefield. While European infantry were more than a match for the standard Ottoman infantry, the Sipahi were far superior to any medieval knights.
During their period of expansion, the Ottomans visualized Europe as Americans would later see their Western frontier: a land of destiny. The conquest of Istanbul in 1453 AD initiated this by uniting Muslim Anatolia and Christian Rumelia under the Ottoman Sultan's protection. However, this attitude would change as the Ottomans were forced to go on the defensive during the 17th and 18th centuries. Ottoman defeats were followed by mass slaughters of Muslim minorities. These massacres characterized the war between Christian and Turk in the 19th century.
At its height, the Ottoman Empire territory included Hungary, Serbia, Bosnia, Romania, Greece, the Ukraine, Iraq, Syria, Israel, Egypt, a large section of North Africa, and most of the Arabian Peninsula. Over time, however, Sultans grew weary of their administrative duties and withdrew from public affairs. The office of Grand Vizier was created to act second only to the sultan in authority and revenue, but while the Grand Vizier was able to stand in for the sultan in an official capacity, he could not take his place as a focus of loyalty among the different classes and social groups in the empire. This separation of political loyalty and centralized authority led to a decline in the government's ability to impose its will, which inevitably led to the Ottoman Empire's end in 1922, when it was replaced by the Turkish Republic.

Arabs

The Arabs are expansionist and religious. They start the game with Pottery and Ceremonial Burial and build Ansar Warriors instead of Knights.

Before the spread of Islam and the Arabic language, the term "Arab" referred to any of the nomadic residents of the Arabian Peninsula. When used in a modern context, "Arab" refers to any of the Arabic-speaking peoples who reside on the Atlantic Coast of Africa, Southwestern Iran, Egypt, Sudan, Saudi-Arabia, Syria, and Iraq. The earliest nomadic inhabitants of the Arabian Peninsula herded their sheep, goats, and camels through an unforgiving desert environment; while those Arabs who settled in the oases provided date and cereal agriculture as trade staples for Arab caravans that transported spices, ivory, and gold from southern Arabia and the Horn of Africa to the civilizations farther north.
During the 7th century AD, Muhammad emerged as the prophet for the religion of Islam, which was widely adopted by the Arab community. Islam unified the Bedouins and the town-dwellers of the oases, and within a century, spread throughout most of the present day Arab-speaking world. The newfound social organization that followed Islam offered new possibilities for the Arabs as agricultural production and intercity trading, particularly in luxury goods, saw significant increases. Gradually, the triad of temple, court, and market formed, as well as a standardized style of writing for laws and other texts. New institutions also emerged, including: coinage, territorial deities, royal priesthoods, and standing armies, which further enhanced Arab power. Adherence to the religion of Islam has become a global phenomenon. Muslims predominate in approximately 30 to 40 countries, from the Atlantic to the Pacific and along a belt that stretches across northern Africa into Central Asia and the northern regions of the Indian subcontinent. Despite the absence of any large-scale Islamic political entities, the Islamic faith continues to expand, by some estimates faster than any other major religion.
By proclaiming his message publicly, Muhammad gained followers. Abu Bakr is noted as being the first male convert to Islam and also as Muhammad's closest companion and advisor. At the point of Muhammad's death, on June 8th, 632 AD Muslims resolved the crisis of succession by accepting Abu Bakr as the first Caliph. In his rule as Caliph, Abu Bakr suppressed tribal, political, and religious uprisings, known as the Rida Wars, and brought central Arabia under Muslim control. These wars caused high casualties among the Islamic community, but through them, Abu Bakr not only ensured the survival of Islam, but also established himself as the undisputed leader of the entire Arabian Peninsula. By undertaking direct expansion from Arabia into Iraq and Syria, he began the Muslim conquests otherwise known as 'Jihad'. Aside from Iraq and Syria these conquests penetrated regions including Anatolia, Nubia, Libya, and Iran. While early Muslim forces consisted of very few soldiers, it's understood that they retained higher morale and mobility than their enemies, as well as the luxury to retreat into the desert where they alone knew the location of water and grazing land. The one military unit that was present in nearly all of the Arabic expansion of the 7th to 9th centuries was the Ansar Warrior. These warriors participated as infantry, but most commonly rode on horseback. The quality of the Arabian horses quickly led to these soldiers dominating the battlefield, making ample use of their array of weaponry, which consisted of javelins, a sword, as well as bow and arrows. Jihad is the only type of war legitimized by Islam, yet the word itself is still misunderstood by Westerners. 'Holy War' is the often-used misleading translation of Jihad, which in fact is meant to consist of an individual's or a communal 'struggle' against evil, within one's self, and in order to protect Islam, but never as a tool for conversion.
Traditional Arab values have since been modified in the 20th century through the combined pressures of urbanization, industrialization, and Western influences. While urban Arabs still tend to identify themselves more by nationality than by tribe, village farmers revere the pastoral nomad's romantic way of life and claim a kinship with the great desert tribes of the past. As heirs to the ancient Egyptians, Babylonians, Persians, Hebrews, even to the Greeks and Indians, the societies created by Muslims bridge time and space. The original Arab tribes in less than 20 years after Muhammad's death defeated the Byzantine and Persian empires, occupied a vast territory from Libya to Persia, and then developed into the Arab, or Islamic, Empire known today.

Koreans

The Koreans are commercial and scientific. They start the game with Alphabet and Bronze Working and build Hwach'a instead of cannon.

Long before 3000 BC, the tribal immigrants of Manchuria and Siberia settled along the coasts and river valleys of the modern-day Korean peninsula. These settlers were the original founders of what we know today as the Korean civilization. The immigrant tribes solidified into three rival kingdoms: Koguryo, Paekche, and Silla; and nearly simultaneously, the kingdoms achieved a complete centralization of power through wars of expansion, organized military systems, training institutions, and tribal aristocracies assembled within the capital cities. The maturation of monarchies in the kingdoms eventually eliminated the influence of the aristocracies, however, and the balance of power waxed and waned as each kingdom endeavored to unite Korea under their exclusive rule.
By 935 AD a general named Wang Kon established the Koryo dynasty, which ruled the Korean peninsula until 1392 AD. Koryo, from which the western word "Korea" is derived, was proclaimed as the successor to all of the conquered kingdoms and states. It was during the Koryo dynasty that Korea began to construct its own distinct cultural identity among the rest of the East- Asian civilizations. A bureaucratic system was created in order to replace the archaic tribal system that had previously governed the country, and civil service examinations were utilized as a means to select only the most capable officials and provincial magnates. The new bureaucratic force reaped by the civil service examinations held the applied precepts of Buddhism in disdain however, and with the assistance of Confucian-scholar General Yi Song-gye, the disgruntled officials seized power and established reforms that brought about the end of the Koryo dynasty, replacing the Buddhist-based system with Confucianism. The Yi dynasty named Hanyang (modern day Seoul) as the new capital of Korea, and operated from it for approximately 500 years until the Japanese annexation of Korea occurred in 1910.
During the reign of the Koryo and Choson / Yi dynasties the advent of popular arts, as well as the introduction of Roman Catholicism in the 17th and 18th centuries, propelled Korea even closer to the modern state that exists today. A series of changes transpired that would impact virtually every sector of Korean society. Korean agriculture prospered as farming technology advanced. The cultivation of special crops such as tobacco and ginseng became possible, providing new and profitable trade products which consequently improved the standard of living for peasants drastically. The government began to mint coins and collect farm rent in cash. Markets were established across the country, creating a national trade network. Scholars switched focus from theory and speculation to matters of practical relevance, including the needs of society and state, while popular literature and artistic works also came into fashion.
At the onset of World War II in 1941, Japan attempted to obliterate Korea as a nation. Hundreds of thousands of Koreans were drafted to fight and work for Japan during the war while the Japanese continued to commit numerous atrocities upon the Korean populace. The Korean provisional government organized the Korean Restoration Army to fight alongside Allied forces in China until August of 1945, when Japan surrendered.
The end of Japanese rule caused great political confusion among the liberated Korean population. The U.S. and the U.S.S.R. supervised the permanent removal of Japanese forces and government from Korea, dividing it along the 38th parallel and sharing the task. The Soviet army, however, was accompanied by a group of expatriated Korean Communists who were placed into key positions of power. The Soviet Union installed a Communist-controlled government in the North, which adopted the political structure of the Soviet Union. This new agency became the only lawful Korean government recognized by the U.S.S.R, essentially declaring war upon South Korea. South Korea was largely unprepared to resist a total invasion; aware of this, the U.S. Congress approved monetary and military aid to support South Korea. The resulting war lasted for approximately three years, but in that time over two-fifths of Korea's industrial facilities, and one-third of its homes were destroyed. On July 27, 1953 an armistice was arranged establishing a cease-fire and a demilitarized zone between the two Korean factions, which still exists today.

SUMERIA

The Sumerians are scientific and agricultural. They start the game with Bronze Working and Pottery and build Enkidu Warriors instead of warriors. They also cannot build Spearmen.

The Sumerians were, by historical consensus, the first human civilization. Originally from Asia Minor, they settled between the Tigris and Euphrates (in modern-day Iraq) and began to farm and create simple goods. They relied on a sort of theocratic city-state government, where each Sumerian city worshipped a separate god and had a separate governor, although all paid tribute to a single King in the capital, Ur.
Sumeria's first and greatest accomplishment was the extent to which its people controlled their environment. They drained swamps, dug canals, and generally bent the Euphrates region to their needs. They plowed the land for the first time in history, and took advantage of the rich, fertile Mesopotamia soil. However, the area was low on other resources, so the Sumerian city-states were forced to import goods (particularly metals). Thus they had to create a barter system of trade, as well as riverboats to more easily traverse the rivers that flanked their home. The invention of the plow led in turn to the invention of the wheel, which permitted animals to pull carts as well as plow fields, and also to the creation of better pottery (with potters' wheels).
Since specialists were now able to create goods, and not every man had to farm, full-time priests could administer community affairs as well as the temples in each city. To support them, in turn, people had time to devise picture signs and other very early alphabets, and being a full-time scribe became a viable profession. The literature of Sumeria followed thereafter, culminating in the Epic of Gilgamesh, a lengthy poem dedicated to the mythic god-king whose real and legendary exploits blend together. A companion of Gilgamesh, Enkidu, fought by Gilgamesh's side in many battles, and for him the Enkidu Warriors are named: fierce fighters who sought to defend Sumerian lands from the other civilizations being born nearby.

The literature of the Sumerians was not limited to stories, though. In fact, one fact of modern life is still as Sumeria designed it. The Sumerian priesthood developed an early mathematics for commercial and religious purposes, and their number system was based around the number 60. Thus time itself is divided into units of 60 seconds in a minute, 60 minutes in an hour, and so forth. The 24-hour day also originates with Sumerian calendars, as does the 360-degree circle. So the fingerprints of the world's most ancient civilization are still visible today.
Sumeria's end came gradually, as barbarians saw what they had achieved and strove to emulate it. About 1,500 years after the first Sumerian cities took form, Amorite nomads settled near Ur in a place called Babylon. The resulting civilization grew into a mighty kingdom in its own right, and when Elamite invaders (from modern-day Iran) sacked Ur, Babylon (which then still styled itself Akkad) saw its opportunity to eclipse its sire. They went in, dispersed the Elamites, and rebuilt Ur in their own image. Sumerian culture and language persisted, but slowly assimilated into the new dominant empire. Sumeria disappeared completely as an autonomous culture by 1900 BC.

HATTI

The Hittites are expansionist and commercial. They start the game with Pottery and Alphabet and build the Three-Man Chariot instead of the chariot.

Compared to other great kingdoms of the Middle East, little is known of Hatti, and what is known is often derived from sources in other contemporary kingdoms (such as Egypt). The Hatti, or Hittite, Empire was one of the great powers of Mesopotamia, rivaling Babylon and Egypt in military strength and influence. The first Hittites probably came from somewhere in the Caucasus or Russia, but settled in central Turkey and later in Syria, areas whose plentiful natural resources, particularly metals, would prove crucial to the power of Hatti. Early Hittite kings focused on consolidating their power in their chosen region, but Mursilis I proved more ambitious, opting to strike out and execute audacious raids against mighty Babylon. He had great success, and indeed was able to undermine and destroy the ruling Amorite dynasty in Babylon -- the family from which most great Babylonian kings (including Hammurabi) came.
When Mursilis was assassinated, a bloody struggle for the kingship followed; the eventual victor, Telipinus, formed his own legal code which helped mitigate later power plays. After that, the Hittite Empire fought brief wars with its neighbors, until the time for a reckoning with Egypt came. The famed battle of Kadesh, in 1299 BC, is one of the most well-known Bronze Age battles. The Pharaoh Ramses II moved into Palestine with a large army of chariots and infantry, to be met by a Hittite force of equal size (yet also composed partly of three-man chariots, a much larger variant of the first wheeled fighting vehicles, which permitted the riders to fight hand-to-hand as well as at a distance). The Hittites were able to surprise the Egyptians near dusk, and only a dramatic force march by the Pharaoh's reserves prevented the total destruction of the Egyptian army. The Hittites were forced to retreat, but given the casualties they suffered, the Egyptians were unable to capitalize on the Hittite retreat and Ramses' overall objective, Egyptian control of Palestine and Syria, was not achieved.
The Hittites are also suspected by archaeologists to be the first smelters of iron. During Hittite primacy, around 1250 BC, the Iron Age began in Turkey, with the Hittites able to remove impurities from iron to finally produce a metal strong enough to use for weapons. The technique caught on very quickly, adding to the Hittites' already substantial wealth. They were not able to exploit this advantage for long, though, as the other regional kingdoms could not afford to allow Hatti a monopoly on iron weapons.
The end of the Hittite Empire came around 1100 BC, when mass migrations from Europe and the Caucasus caused the Empire to dissolve into dozens of small, semi-autonomous city-states. These city-states, in turn, were easily absorbed by upstart Assyria, which itself would dominate the Middle East for centuries thereafter.

AUSTRIA

The Austrians are militaristic and industrious. They start the game with Warrior Code and Masonry and build Hussars instead of cavalry.

Austria, located in lower Central Europe north of the Balkans, first coalesced as a nation in the early Middle Ages by the margrave Leopold of Babenberg, a regional noble who in the 10th century C.E. pushed the Magyars from that area and formalized a system of common law. But it was not until three hundred years later that Austria would take the first steps towards great power status. A Hungarian noble, Otakar II, took advantage of a succession dispute in 1254 and married into the Babenberg line. As a response, the German nobility in Bavaria and elsewhere felt concerned, and began a long campaign to undermine and eventually depose Otakar. The German army's commander, a relatively obscure noble from a minor family, was then elected king of Germany to reward his successes. His name was Rudolf of Hapsburg. The Hapsburgs would become one of Europe's most powerful families; the seat of their power was Austria.
In 1519 Martin Luther posted his famous 95 Theses, and at the time the Hapsburg emperor was Charles V, a devout Catholic and harsh ruler. Forced to rule two essentially foreign countries -- Austria and Spain -- Charles did his best, but made many mistakes and alienated many nobles before he was able to successfully ride two of Europe's strongest horses at once. Moreover, Charles' fervent opposition to Protestantism as well as his well-founded concerns regarding the Hapsburg rights in western Europe diverted his attention from the threat of the Ottoman Turks (whose ships already ruled the Mediterranean). He used severe measures to put down rebellions in lower Austria and in the Netherlands, and even allowed an unpaid and hungry army to sack Rome over a grudge against the Pope. Nonetheless, Charles dealt successfully with a huge number of threats, minor and major, to the Austrian empire, and he also managed to keep the Turks at bay. He even managed to expand the empire, by acquiring the Portuguese succession rights. His greatest ambition, to bring all Protestants back into the Church, was obviously a failure, although he made several sincere (and even nonviolent) attempts to bring this about.
After Charles' death, the empire steadily grew, adding Bohemia to the northeast. The new Emperor, Ferdinand, wished to extend his influence and rule further into Germany. The result was the Thirty Years' War, in which the great powers of Europe took advantage of religious strife to expand their influence. Austria did not do well in the end, and lost territory and huge amounts of money in the war and ensuing treaty.
Austria continued to play a major role in European and world politics through the nineteenth century, attempting to slow the rise of Prussia in Germany, and acting as a key member of the coalition opposing Napoleon. The Austrian army adopted the style and dress of the Hungarian light cavalry, and these fast, deadly horsemen came to be known as hussars. Hussars quickly became part of virtually every European army's order of battle, and some still fight today.
Since 1700 Austria has been (and remains) a focal point of European culture and learning. History's greatest composer, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, created his works for the Austrian emperor. The Vienna Circle, an influential group of philosophers and mathematicians, sparked the "logical positivist" movement, which sought to unify philosophy with natural science. At the same time, the economist Carl Menger founded the Austrian school of economics, which emphasized qualitative analysis of human action.
The first among many of the twentieth century's tragedies began in Austria, with the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand by Serbian nationalists. When the Serbian government refused Austria's outrageous demands, Austria declared war on Serbia. This sparked the chain of events leading to World War I, which would consume millions of lives and leave Europe's great empires in ruins and revolution. The Hapsburg empire was no exception, and its final collapse came at this time.
After World War I, Central Europe was broken into many different countries. Austria was ruled by a series of authoritarian regimes until it was annexed by one even moreso -- Hitler's Germany. After a period of military rule, Austria became a full-fledged republic in 1955. Today Austria is known as a repository of European culture and tradition, despite its struggles with its Nazi past; its churches and universities are among Europe's most prestigious, especially in the arts.

BYZANTINES

The Byzantines are seafaring and scientific. They start the game with Bronze Working and Alphabet and build the Dromon instead of the galley.

The Byzantine Empire was first known as the eastern Roman empire, when Constantine I relocated the Roman capital from Rome to Constantinople and his successor Valentinian I made the division between Western and Eastern Empire official. When barbarians sacked Rome and defeated the western armies a century later, the Byzantine Empire was the final bulwark of Roman civilization to stand against the increasing pressure from European barbarians to the north and Persia in the east. Byzantine government was based largely on that of Rome, although unlike Roman emperors a Byzantine emperor was elected by a threefold vote of the senate, the people, and the army. To govern the empire, Byzantine emperors relied on a labyrinthine system of advisors, ministries, and offices -- hence the pejorative "Byzantine" today, used to describe overly hierarchical and intrigue-prone systems.
The golden age of Byzantium began when Justinian I and his brilliant wife Theodora became emperor and empress. Under their rule, the Byzantine general Belisarius undertook a series of dramatic and successful campaigns against the barbarian kingdoms that had risen in the ruins of Rome. After earning imperial favor by ruthlessly quashing a popular revolt, Belisarius successfully fought the Ostrogoths in Italy, the Persians, and various tribes in North Africa. His enormous popularity eventually caused Justinian to fear him, and he was eventually stripped of his command.
Byzantine military reform came mostly during the reign of Heraclius, the son of Africa's imperial governor. Arriving in Constantinople to restore order after a disastrous interregnum (marred by assassination, intrigue, and civil disorder), Heraclius placed tremendous power in the hands of the army. It was also during the reign of Heraclius that Greek fire, the medieval precursor to napalm, was invented, and used extensively by Byzantine ships called dromons in battle against Persian and barbarian ships. Heraclius also ordered the army to emulate the barbarian horse archers previously employed as mercenaries; the result was the cataphract, a heavily armored cavalryman who could fight with bow, sword, or lance.

After two hundred years of defeats and erosion, during which Byzantium lost virtually all of its possessions south of Asia Minor, the ascension of Basil I to the imperial throne in 867 marked a turnaround in Byzantine military fortunes. Byzantine armies beat back the Arabs in the east and south, and despite several humiliating defeats at the hands of the Muslims, reasserted dominance over the eastern Mediterranean. Syria, along with the key city of Antioch, also came back to Byzantine control, along with Armenia and large parts of the Balkans. For 150 years, Byzantium enjoyed civil prosperity and military victory.
But new adversaries appeared where the old ones had fallen. In 1071, Byzantium suffered two catastrophic defeats -- they lost their last toehold in Italy to the Normans, who had earlier sacked Constantinople during a crusade gone awry. In the east, the Ottomans broke Byzantine power in Asia Minor forever at Manzikert, and the once dominant empire was reduced to a rump state comprising Constantinople, parts of the Balkans, and a few remaining provinces in western Turkey. The heart of it, though, was now ruled by the Turks. Nonetheless, during this time, art, religion, and philosophy flourished within the walls of Constantinople. It was as if the learned men of Byzantium were unaware of the threats lurking outside. Another fateful event, the Schism of 1054, finalized the separation between the Byzantine (Eastern) and Catholic (western) churches. This would lead to deep suspicion between the two churches, and western reluctance to assist Byzantium against the Turks years later.
Eventually Byzantium was forced to resort to bribery and compromise with the Turks and the new western powers that coveted its territory and former influence. In 1421, after a hundred years of co-existence with the Turks, the new sultan Murad II revoked all of the arrangements that had existed between the two empires. As a last resort, the Byzantine emperor begged Rome for help, but the Christian army sent to fight the Turks was utterly defeated. In 1453, the Turks assaulted Constantinople itself, and the walls that had stood for over a thousand years finally fell, marking the end of the Byzantine Empire.

INCANS

The Inca are expansionist and agricultural. They start the game with Pottery and Masonry. They start the game with a regular scout and thereafter can build their unique Chasqui Scout unit.

Hundreds of years ago, a group of people calling themselves the Inca settled the Cuzco Valley high in the Andes Mountains of South America. Where they had come from was a mystery. Yet, though their purpose for settling such a rugged and inhospitable landscape was unclear, the end result of their arrival is without doubt. In time, the Inca built an empire that spanned the Pacific coast (as far south as Argentina and as far north as Ecuador), some 2,000 miles of hills, mountains, valleys and coastline. I n just a short time (roughly 100 years), the Incan empire dominated South America and is, to this day, considered one of the finest empires the world has ever known. Beginning with the ninth ruler, Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui, the Inca began their expansion. Pachacuti won his first military campaign against the Chanca people, where he refused to retreat despite insurmountable odds. From there, he consolidated his control over his cultural base, Cuzco, then moved north into the Urubamba Valley, which extended beyond the site where the lost city of Mach Picchu was later built. He then turned his army south and conquered the Colla and Lupaca tribes. Though not the first Incan ruler, Pachacuti was by many accounts one of the finest Pre-Columbian persons that ever lived. A great military strategist, an architect, a skilled diplomat and a gifted religious philosopher, his teachings are still practiced by many Andeans today.
Like many other groups that preceded the Inca (the Chimu, the Nazca, the Moche), Incan society was heavily dipped in the worship of powerful gods. Their pantheon contained such lofty omnipotents as Viracocha (the god of creation), Inti (the sun and father of the Inca Dynasty), Illapa (god of rain, thunder, and lightening), Pacha Mama (mother of the earth), and Mama Cocha (mother of the lakes). Grand ceremonies were held frequently to honor these gods, for the Inca believed that if one did not give thanks and obedience to the gods, bad things would happen. The world of the Andes Mountains is full of ecological wonders and ecological disasters: Earthquakes, severe storms, and volcanic activity. The gods held sway with these events and thus the proper respect had to be paid at all times.

The Inca called their empire Tahuantinsuyu (“Land of the Four Quarters”), which was divided into four provinces. Each province was controlled by a local governor called the apu; below him were the local rulers - the curacas, and even lower still the district headsmen - the camayoc. Through this governmental structure, the Sapa-Inca could rule the empire with impunity. Additional structures were also put in place, such as the Imperial road system, which was built along the steep inclines of mountains, interspersing bridges and stone walkways, stone steps and flat brick highways. To rule such a vast realm, the Sapa-Inca also needed constant information about the status of the far-flung reaches of the kingdom. To provide this information, the Inca formed the Chasqui Scout system. Chasquis delivered messages across the empire, relaying (by memory) important information from point to point. And in this way, a message about a peasant uprising hundreds of miles north of Cuzco could reach the king within a matter of days. Chasquis were also used by the army on campaigns to deliver messages between the moving columns. In addition, way-stations known as tambos were constructed at strategic points along the roads, giving travelers and important dignitaries a place to rest and prepare for the next leg of their journey.
The Incan army was also well organized. When called upon to fight, each province would muster squadrons of men armed with maces, bows and arrows, slings, darts, and spears. During a battle, slingers would let fly a shower of rocks to soften the enemy lines. Then, archers would release their shafts, darts would fly, and then the shock troops would hit, in a torrent of screams and shouts meant to confuse and terrify the wavering opposition. Incan warfare was very successful. But nothing could prepare the empire for what was coming.
After the glorious rise of Pachacuti and his son, Topa Inca, the empire began to erode under a series of internal and external disasters. A bitter civil war between half brothers Huascar and Atahuallpa stretched the empire to the breaking point. Atahuallpa won the war, quickly killed his half-brother, and declared himself king. But, in 1532 AD, Spanish Conquistadors, under the command of Francisco Pizarro, entered the Cajamarca Valley, brutally attacked Atahuallpa and his subjects, killing many and taking the Sapa-Inca hostage. Eventually, Pizarro killed Atahuallpa, pillaged the empire of its riches, and brought an end to the mighty Incan civilization.

MAYANS

The Maya are agricultural and industrious. They start the game with Masonry and Pottery and build the Javelin Thrower instead of the Archer.

The Mayan civilization of ancient Mesoamerica is shrouded in mystery. The Maya developed their unique culture in one of the most inhospitable places on earth. The lowlands of northern Guatemala, western Honduras, Belize, and the Yucatan peninsula, are hot and humid, teeming with jungles boasting an annual average rainfall of 120 inches. And yet, these stalwart peoples toughed it out and forged a civilization that stands, to this day, as a testament to the ingenuity and creativity of ancient man.
Where did the Maya originate? The earliest archeological evidence was discovered in and around Belize, and dates as far back as 1200 BC. Primitive tools and pottery, small religious figurines of animals and humans became abundant, and by 900 BC, small villages of one-room dwellings made of poles lashed together with henequen rope, began to appear everywhere. By 600 BC, the Maya were the dominant people in the region. Between 300 BC and 150 BC, Mayan villages grew into larger and more populous cities, ruled by powerful kings and noble families. It was during this so-called Pre-Classic period that Maya society defined its cultural identity.
It was also during this time that the Maya began to worship a pantheon of gods, from the creator of the universe, Huabku, to Itzamna (creator of man); from Ix Chel (goddess of childbirth), to Chac (the rainmaker – an all-important god to the peasant class); from Yam Kax (the young corn god), to Ah Much (the lord of death). As more and more gods were added to the pantheon, the rituals needed to glorify them became quite elaborate, and thus it was necessary to create a priest sect to maintain the ceremonies.
One of the most important cultural traits developed during the Pre-Classic period was the act of human sacrifice. Though the Maya never practiced it as prominently as the Aztecs, various acts of blood letting became commonplace and (ultimately) essential to the Mayan way-of-life. Mayan kings ruled through semi-divine right, and they believed that their connection to the gods could only be maintained through ritual sacrifice.

Thus, temples (in the stair-step design) were constructed with sacrificial altars. On these altars were laid human offerings. Stone knives were produced and the bodies cut to let the blood flow. Then, with speed and determination, the chests were cut open and hearts ripped out. It was these ritual offerings that allowed Mayan kings and priests to hold absolute control over their subjects.
By 300 AD, the Mayan Classic period was in full bloom. This was the age of kings. Great rulers such as Smoke-Jaguar (or Smoke-Imix), Pacal, Eighteen Rabbits, and Blue-Quetzal Macaw, rose to prominence and ruled brilliantly over their lands. Mayan society was divided into city-states, each with its own king and cultural center. During the Classic period, the political influence of various cities rose and fell: Chichen Itza, Palenque, Copan, and Tikal, to name a few. It was also during the Classic period that the Mayan military grew in organization and in strength. The Mayan soldier carried knives and spears, clubs, bows and arrows, javelins, and even perfected the art of throwing hornets nests (called hornet bombs) into enemy troops to create confusion and panic. For defense, they used small shields made of jaguar skins. And Mayan generals called upon their priests to divine the gods and determine the best place and time to attack the enemy. It was through warfare that the Mayans collected slaves to sacrifice to their gods.
By 850-900 AD, Mayan culture began a decline that saw its ultimate dissolution. One city after another began to fade away into the jungle in this Post-Classic period, as the populations vanished. Where did the Maya go? There is no consensus on this matter, but there are many theories. Environmental evidence suggests that a massive drought (hastened by volcanic activity), lasting for decades, hit the Yucatan Peninsula around this time. Another theory suggests that the peasantry, dissatisfied with their rulers, revolted. Another suggests disease savaged the populations and destabilized the local economies. Whatever the reason, by 1100 AD, the last of the great Mayan cities were swallowed by the jungle, and there they lay fallow for centuries until wealth-seeking Conquistadors and archeologists unearthed their wondrous remains and reintroduced the Mayan culture to the world.

PORTUGAL

The Portuguese are expansionist and seafaring. They start the game with Pottery and Alphabet and build carracks instead of caravels.

In 1139 CE, Afonse Henriques, appointed count of the province of Portugal by the king of Castile, defeated a Muslim army at Ourique. Impolitely, he took that opportunity to declare Portugal independent of Castile, with himself as king of the new country. He was able to get away with it largely due to the recognition by the Christian kingdoms of Spain that the Muslims were the common enemy, and when assured that Portugal would still play an active role in the impending Reconquista, Castile-Navarre and Aragon were willing to overlook Henriques’ impudence. Two hundred years later, once the Muslims were confined to their tiny corner of Spain in Granada, Castile saw fit to repossess the Portuguese kingdom. When the Castilian army was soundly thrashed in battle by the warrior king John of Aviz, it was clear to all that Portugal was there to stay.
After the victory over Castile and the collective reconquest of Iberia from the Muslims, Portugal looked overseas to continue its expansion. King John led a campaign against Ceuta in North Africa (modern-day Morocco). The ease of Ceuta’s conquest caught the attention of his third son, Prince Henry the Navigator. Henry’s older brother Duarte succeeded to the throne after John’s death, and the two were often at odds, with Duarte skeptical and suspicious of Henry’s ambitions to explore new lands and convert the natives to Christianity. For the next twenty years Henry sponsored expeditions to western Africa, and even led a campaign to invade Tangiers in 1437 (which ended in defeat). But on the whole Henry’s personal seafaring experience was limited; his sobriquet comes from his patronage of other adventurers and the resulting age of discovery and colonization that they inaugurated with his support.
Portuguese explorers continued their discoveries after Henry’s death in 1460. The greatest was Bartolomeu Dias, whose 1488 voyage around the southern coast of Africa made Europe aware of the Indian Ocean and a shorter route to India than the one Columbus gambled on just four years later. Dias also traveled across the western Atlantic to Brazil; on that voyage he was lost at sea in 1498.
Closely following Dias was Vasco da Gama, who took Dias’ maps and went beyond their limits, landing in India in 1497. He made three trips to India over the following thirty years, the last of which took place in 1524 after his appointment by the King as viceroy of India. He did not live long after his arrival; some speculate he was poisoned by corrupt administrators who feared punishment at his hands.
In 1543, Portuguese sailors were shipwrecked in Japan. They did not stay long, but left behind the technique of musket-making –- in that way, a handful of men changed Japanese history forever, as the samurai era was drowned by the sound of musketfire. By that time Portugal’s overseas holdings were vast, comprising holdings all over Africa, India, China, Macao, and South America.
In 1580 Spain awoke, flexing its muscles as the world’s pre-eminent power. It took the opportunity to occupy Portugal, and for almost 100 years the two countries were united. The Portuguese royalty did not give up, though, and through clever diplomacy and alliance with England they were able to restore their monarchy and, with Spain greatly weakened and demoralized by the Thirty Years’ War, finally forced Spanish recognition of Portuguese independence. Portugal remained an influential and wealthy European power through the Napoleonic Wars, when its alliance with Britain gave the British a foothold on the Continent to oppose Napoleon’s armies.
Portugal’s prosperity lasted until the 1890s, when a combination of inflation and sluggish industrialization undermined its industries. Dissatisfaction with the monarchy led to a coup and the establishment of a republic in 1910; this did not last long, as radical groups pursued extreme agendas and unrest grew. In 1926, the army bloodlessly overthrew the republic; the junta asked a university professor and occasional member of parliament named Antonio Oliviera de Salazar to assume control of all economic policy. Six years later, Salazar became prime minister, a limited office in theory but dictator in practice. Salazar’s new constitution formalized his powers and he ruled Portugal with absolute authority for nearly 40 years.
In 1968 Salazar suffered a stroke; his ministers tried to continue the dictatorship but in 1974 a democratic revolution re-installed a republican form of government. After narrowly avoiding a Communist coup, Portugal flourished, although it presently faces structural problems similar to those of its nearest European neighbors.

DUTCH

The Dutch are seafaring and agricultural. They start the game with Pottery and Alphabet and build the Swiss Mercenaries instead of the pikeman.

Toward the end of the 16th century CE, the independent cities and principalities of Flanders and Belgium sent representatives to Utrecht to form an alliance. The alliance would coordinate taxation and military operations against Spain, whose ruling Hapsburgs had dominion over the Low Countries even after they adopted the Protestant religion. The Netherlands, comparatively small and poor compared to mighty Spain and its empire of gold in the Americas, often had to rely on Swiss mercenaries and other hired guns for its defense. This was not a long-term solution, hence the need for a much closer alliance. The result of this meeting was the Union of Utrecht, which formally created the United Provinces of the Netherlands.
Spain, which had spent the previous decade alternately fighting and politicking against the armies and intrigues of William of Orange, was not pleased by this development. Orange’s position had always been that Spain’s sovereignty over the Netherlands was legitimate, but the governors chosen by the King were trampling the rights of Orange and the other native nobles. William also vehemently opposed the imposition of Catholicism on his homeland, but still felt the King of Spain could be persuaded to loosen his grip. This proved unrealistic, and in 1581 Orange publicly renounced his loyalty to the Spanish throne. He was assassinated a few years later; he did not live to see his country completely free of Spanish domination.
However, once the provincial leaders (particularly those of Holland, the largest and most influential of the United Provinces) and the nobles began to cooperate, putting their disagreements to one side, Spain was nearly defeated. Under the brilliant political, military, and economic leadership of Johan de Witt, perhaps the Netherlands’ greatest statesman, the Dutch Republic grew into a world power, its rapidly growing economy and naval presence allowing it to settle colonies around the world and establish a massive trade empire. This wealth translated into a cultural golden age lasting over a hundred years.
During that time, Dutch thinkers made fundamental contributions to philosophy, law, science, and art. Hugo Grotius, a lawyer and philosopher, wrote “On the Law of War and Peace” in 1625 –- perhaps the first comprehensive analysis of international law. The philosopher Baruch Spinoza published substantial revisions of his mentor Rene Descartes’ rationalist works, and also wrote a lengthy defense of freedom of conscience –- which was promptly denounced as heresy by his contemporaries. In art, an obscure portrait painter named Rembrandt van Rijn rose to prominence (and disapproval) for his religious paintings and figure studies. Peter Paul Rubens, a great painter in his own right, also ran an immense school for artists, attracting dozens of talented painters from all over Europe to the Netherlands. The mathematician Christiaan Huygens developed his wave theory of light, which was a giant leap in the study of optics pioneered by Isaac Newton. And biology was made incomparably easier by Antonie van Leeuwenhoek’s invention of the microscope.
After the Golden Age, the Netherlands retreated into the background, as the English fleet gradually achieved its supremacy. By the Napoleonic era, the Netherlands was once again dominated by its neighbors. In 1830, Belgium broke away from the United Provinces, in reaction to the restoration of the monarchy and the subordination of the Estates General, the council of stadtholders (provincial rulers). The Industrial Revolution came to the Netherlands as it did to the rest of continental Europe, and when World War I arrived, the Dutch remained neutral.
The Dutch were not so fortunate during World War II, as Hitler’s armies invaded and imposed their brutish rule. (The diary of Anne Frank, a Jewish girl living in Amsterdam, is considered a classic portrait of innocence confronted with great evil.) Despite an unusually active and vigorous resistance to the Nazis –- which was often met with brutal reprisals –- a great many Dutch Jews died in the Nazi death camps. After the war, the former Dutch colonies followed the pattern of other European colonies at the time, with independence and nationalist movements breaking out everywhere. Dutch politics were still characterized by religious divisions even until the 1970s, appropriately given the nation’s history, but a more conventional parliamentary party system arose. Today the Netherlands, a thoroughly modern European nation, is best known for its hosting of international institutions such as the International Criminal Court in The Hague.

Government Types

Anarchy

Anarchy is not so much a system of government as the lack of one. Your civilization can sink into anarchy if the government falls from prolonged civil disorder, or if you sanction a revolution. Anarchy seldom lasts longer than a few turns. During that period corruption and waste are so high that no production occurs and no taxes are collected. Scientific research comes to halt, as well. There is no improvement maintenance when a civilization is in Anarchy.

Worker efficiency	50%
Hurry Method	None
Corruption / Waste	Catastrophic
War Weariness	None
Draft Rate	0
Military Police Limit	0
Units Support:	per town	0
	per city	0
	per metropolis	0

Notes: No city production, no research.

Change of rule in cultures are often periods of unrest, but when the very framework for government is transformed it almost always results in a period of anarchy. The massive political and social upheaval experienced by the culture during a period of anarchy brings commerce and production to a standstill as cities rise up and government organizations try to restructure. Despite the fact that corruption and waste are absolute, there is a positive side to anarchy - it is temporary. When the smoke clears and the citizens calm down they are ready to embrace a new form of order in your society.

Despotism

In Despotism, you rule with absolute power over your subjects, usually enforced by the military. This system has a tendency to minimize individual freedom and reduce the efficiency of production efforts.

Worker efficiency	100%
Hurry Method	Forced Labor
Corruption / Waste	Rampant
War Weariness	None
Draft Rate	2
Military Police Limit	2
Units Support:	per town	4
	per city	4
	per metropolis	4

In addition, any city production square which produces more than two food, shields, or commerce in a despotic government instead produces one less.

Despotism is, without a doubt, the simplest form of government. It is based on a simple concept: might makes right. In a despotism, the power is held unquestionably by those who hold power over the military and who therefore can enforce their decrees. Because of the oppression experienced in this type of regime, despots often find that their ability to control the population is proportional to their use of armed troops in towns and cities in which the people live. Furthermore, because it is such a centralized form of government despotism makes it difficult to effectively put down rebellions and prevent the misappropriation of funds if their empire grows too large. Despots pay a terrible price in waste and corruption in their society; and with the development of more sophisticated forms of government despots often find that staging a coup is necessary for further growth.

Monarchy

Monarchs rule with absolute authority, severely limiting personal and economic freedom of all citizens except for nobility and the rich upper-class. However, there is a sense among the populace that you rule by sanction of the gods (or God) and this alleviates many of the production problems found in despotism. Corruption and waste are significant, but are ameliorated to an extent by loyalty to the King.

Worker efficiency	100%
Hurry Method	Pay citizens
Corruption / Waste	Problematic
War Weariness	None
Draft Rate	2
Military Police Limit	3
Units Support:	per town	2
	per city	4
	per metropolis	8

Communism

Under Communism, the government is in the hands of a ruling "party" controlled absolutely by you, the Chairman. Although Communism allows greater production than despotism, the system restricts personal freedoms, limiting commerce. One positive aspect of Communism is its effect upon corruption and waste: all cities suffer the same, limited effects.

Worker efficiency	100%
Hurry Method	Forced Labor
Corruption / Waste	Communal
War Weariness	None
Draft Rate	2
Military Police Limit	4
Units Support:	per town	6
	per city	6
	per metropolis	6

Republic

Under a Republic, you rule over autonomous city states by consent of the people through representatives. This allows the people substantial personal and economic freedoms, producing an increase in commerce. However your government is affected by war weariness, which can cause significant civil disorder problems in times of war, especially if you are the aggressor. Maintenance cost per unit per turn is 2 gold instead of just 1.

Worker efficiency	100%
Hurry Method	Pay citizens
Corruption / Waste	Nuisance
War Weariness	Low
Draft Rate	1
Military Police Limit	0
Units Support:	per town	1
	per city	3
	per metropolis	4

Democracy

You are elected by the people to rule with their interests at heart. You are rewarded by increased commerce and production. However, war weariness is a significant problem and war must be entered into only after much consideration.

Worker efficiency	150%
Hurry Method	Pay citizens
Corruption / Waste	Minimal
War Weariness	High
Draft Rate	1
Military Police Limit	0
Units Support:	per town	0
	per city	0
	per metropolis	0

Fascism

You rule as dictator of a fascist state, appealing to strong feelings of national identity and the promise of a glorious future (or return to an idealized past). Your nation views itself as entitled to anything it can take from weaker or less worthy civilizations, so war weariness is not an issue, and nationalist fervor for public works means that your Workers do their jobs faster. However, your brutal methods and suspicious attitude towards business and enterprise mean you must use forced labor to build improvements. Your cities lose population points upon a change to fascist government, Newly conquered cities also lose population, and do not generate culture until a popular majority has been assimilated.

Worker efficiency	200%
Hurry Method	Forced Labor
Corruption / Waste	Nuisance
War Weariness	None
Draft Rate	2
Military Police Limit	4
Units Support:	per town	4
	per city	7
	per metropolis	10

Unlike other forms of government, there is no concrete definition of fascism. The word "fascism" comes from the fasces, the bundle of sticks used as a symbol of authority in ancient Rome -- appropriately, since the first fascist government, that of Benito Mussolini in Italy, aspired to regain Rome's glory.
Some common elements of fascism include strong nationalist sentiment, xenophobia, subordination of individual interests to those of the community or "society", militarism and glorification of the army, secret police forces that enforce secret laws, informer networks, suppression of civil liberties and independent media, and economic policies that tightly tie business and commerce to government. (Note that many of these features are common in communist states as well.)
Fascist states need not be authoritarian, although they usually are; when fascist leaders are democratically elected (as Adolf Hitler was), they often try to modify or abolish the democratic institutions that placed the leaders in power.

Feudalism

You rule as a feudal king, dependent on your vassal lords for support and bound to respect their wishes. Corruption among the lords is a continual problem. In addition, your vassals are wary of continual warfare and war weariness may result. You do not suffer the production problems associated with despotism, however. Maintenance cost per unit per turn is 3 gold instead of 1.

Worker efficiency	100%
Hurry Method	Forced Labor
Corruption / Waste	Problematic
War Weariness	Low
Draft Rate	2
Military Police Limit	3
Units Support:	per town	5
	per city	2
	per metropolis	1

Feudal governments are decentralized monarchies where kings rule because subordinate nobles support them. Kings still retain vast powers under feudalism, but nonetheless must tread carefully lest their vassals rebel. The range of powers available to feudal kings usually involved the power to tax, to impress a lord's serfs into (limited) military service, and to resolve political disputes and create titles.

Strategic Resources

Horses

Horses are Strategic Resources required to build mounted military units.

Horses appear when your civilization discovers The Wheel and can be found in grasslands, plains, and hills.

Arguably the most useful domesticated animal in mankind’s history, horses have existed for some 50 million years. While significant evolution has taken place (early ancestors were under a foot tall), the basic appearance of horses has remained relatively unchanged. The earliest interaction between horses and men was of game, with early man hunting them for food. Around 2500 B.C. the first signs of domesticated breeds began appearing in Asia, but the idea took hold and spread rapidly. Their contributions to man’s conquest of his fellow man were immense, enabling the vast campaigns by Genghis Khan and Alexander the Great. The Spaniards introduced the modern breed to North America in the 16th century, often turning their imported herds loose before returning to Europe (making valuable room for gold and other treasures). While the importance of horses has dwindled since the advent of the internal combustion engine, they remain a boon in the forms of entertainment and farming.

Iron

Iron is a Strategic Resource required to build Ancient and Middle Ages sword and armor military units.

Iron deposits appear when your civilization discovers iron working, and can be found in hills and mountains.

When early civilizations began to use metal to construct tools and weapons, the most commonly used metal was bronze. Bronze had the advantage of being readily available and easy to work with. Unfortunately, it was too soft to hold an effective edge. In the mid-14th century BC in central Europe, iron replaced bronze as the metal of choice, and the Iron Age was begun. Since this time, iron has been a valuable commodity. Deposits of iron and iron ore found in mountains are mined and processed for use in their raw form, and in the production of steel.

Saltpeter

Saltpeter is a Strategic Resource required to build early gunpowder military units.

Saltpeter deposits appear when your civilization discovers Gunpowder and can be found in hills, mountains and desert.

When found in nature, saltpeter (also known as potassium nitrate) takes the form of a white powdery substance. A major component in black gunpowder beginning around the 12th century, it has also contributed to the fields of medicine, food preservation and farming. The manufacturing of saltpeter is accomplished by combining the compounds sodium nitrate and potassium chloride.

Coal

Coal is a Strategic Resource required to produce early steampower units like ironclads. More importantly, a civilization requires coal to build its railway system and to power the factories and power plants that fuel the incredible production of the Industrial Age.

Coal deposits appear when your civilization discovers Steam Power and can be found in hills, mountains, and jungles.

More than 300 million years ago, plant life growing in swamps began to decompose. Layers of sand and mud covered the decomposing plants, and the decaying plants were compressed by the combined weight of water and sediment. Over time, the plant matter hardened and became coal. Coal deposits are mined all over the world, and coal was one of the major fuel sources in the world through the 1970s. In many countries, concern over the environmental effects of the burning of coal has led to a decline in its use. The smoke produced by burning coal has a high acid content, and creates an environmental condition known as acid rain, which is harmful to plant and animal life. Despite the environmental concerns, some of the largest coal mines in the U.S. each still produce more than 450,000 metric tons annually, making coal mining a very profitable industry.

Oil

Oil is a Strategic Resource required to build late Industrial Age and Modern Era units.

Oil deposits appear when your civilization discovers Refining and can be found in tundra, desert and marsh.

Humans have known oil since ancient times. Oil deposits found on the surface were used for centuries for waterproofing and fuel purposes. But it was not until the coming of the Industrial Revolution that civilizations began to form a dependence on petroleum products. The widespread use of oil for fuel, lubrication, and other purposes led to a search for larger supplies. In the mid 1800s, the first oil wells were drilled, marking the beginning of a tremendously important and profitable industry. Today, with the world’s oil supplies dwindling and the demand for oil constantly rising, oil is a more valuable resource than ever.

Rubber

Rubber is a Strategic Resource required to build late Industrial Age and Modern Era units.

Rubber sources appear when your civilization discovers Replaceable Parts and can be found in jungles, forests and marsh.

Rubber was a common resource for the Indians of Central and South America since well before Columbus landed in the New World. This naturally occurring rubber allowed waterproofed shoes, playing balls, and other pragmatic benefits, but had the problem of shortly losing its elasticity. The process of vulcanizing, discovered accidentally by Charles Goodyear in 1839, improved not only its elasticity but also its ability to stay pliable in hot or cold weather. The first synthetic rubbers began appearing towards the end of the 19th century in Europe. Though they were of limited benefit (because of inferior quality compared to natural rubber) one advantage was independence from having to import the material from regional plantations. The Germans learned this lesson well during World War I, when the British Navy shut down many of their naval shipping routes.

Aluminum

Aluminum is a Strategic Resource required to build Modern Era units and Spaceship Parts.

Aluminum sources appear when your civilization discovers Rocketry and can be found in hills and tundra.

A silvery, gray metal, aluminum has a staggering number of uses and applications. Just a few examples include the fact it never rusts, is lighter than copper (and almost as effective in electricity transmission), and is soft enough to easily mold for nearly any purpose. Though the dominant metal in the Earth’s composition, aluminum wasn’t discovered until 1825, thousands of years after copper and iron. The primary reason for this was the difficulty in extracting the metal from the ore (in modern aluminum, the ore bauxite). Charles Hall, a 22-year-old American, created what was to become the most cost effective method of separating aluminum in 1886. His process involved passing an electrical current through aluminum oxide, resulting in two separate components of pure aluminum and oxygen.

Uranium

Uranium is a Strategic Resource required to build Modern Era units and power plants.

Uranium sources appear when your civilization discovers Fission and can be found in mountains and forests.

One of the most valuable metals in the world, uranium’s use has dramatically changed since its discovery in 1789. Originally used in the production of steel-alloys, uranium improved the strength and elasticity of steel without making it brittle. Since 1939 it’s rarely been used for anything besides atomic energy. This heavy, white metal’s greatest contribution is to the process of nuclear fission. Radioactive manipulation of uranium atoms can eject neutrons, which can travel at speeds up to 12,000 miles per second. If such a neutron impacts the nucleus of a neighboring atom, the target atom can completely fragment. Not only is the resulting energy released immense, but the shattered atom can also potentially collide with additional atoms. This chain reaction is the phenomenon underlying all nuclear fission applications including nuclear weapons and power.

Luxury Resources

Wine

Wine is a luxury resource that makes content people happy in cities that are connected to it by domestic or foreign trade routes.

Wine is always visible on the map and can be found in grasslands, plains, and hills.

Wine, a beverage made from fermented grapes, was first produced as early as 6000 BC. Its use spread throughout the Middle East and Egypt, and it quickly became a popular beverage of the ancient world. The grapes used for the making of wine are grown in many different regions of the world. Most vineyards are located in hills and valleys of temperate regions. Wine making as an industry has been perfected over several centuries. Many regions such as the Rhine and Loire valleys of Europe are well known for their fine wines, and derive a significant portion of their economy from wine making.

Furs

Furs are luxury resources that make content people happy in cities that are connected to them by domestic or foreign trade routes.

Furs are always visible on the map and can be found in tundra and forests.

Throughout history, animal furs have been valuable commodities for trade and sale. Many different types of animals including minks, rabbits, and beavers have been captured by trappers for the purpose of obtaining their pelts for use in the making of clothing and other items. The exploration and colonization of the New World caused the fur industry to boom by making a variety of furs readily available. By the late 1800s, farms were set up specifically to raise animals for the fur industry. Starting in the 1970s, environmentalists and animal rights groups have lobbied to change public opinion concerning the harvesting and sale of furs. Despite these vocal groups, the fur industry remains profitable, if not as wide spread, in the world today.

Dye

Dyes are luxury resources that make content people happy in cities that are connected to them by domestic or foreign trade routes.

Dyes are always visible on map and can be found in jungles and forests.

Dyeing is the process of applying colors to fabrics. A human practice for over three thousand years, it enabled the natural white color of silk, wool and cotton to be enhanced with a varied spectrum of color. Natural dyes are created from a myriad of sources, including shells, animals and plants, though these were not always permanent and frequently expensive. Modern dyes are based around artificial or processed substances such as coal and other chemicals. One benefit for a nation with an extensive dye industry is that the processes involved in creating dye can be easily retooled to other purposes. Germany discovered this in World War I when it was determined that factories producing artificial dye could be easily modified to create explosives and other tools of war.

Incense

Incense is a luxury resource that make content people happy in cities that are connected to it by domestic or foreign trade routes.

Incense is always visible on the map and can be found in hills and deserts.

A potent luxury today as well as throughout history, this dried perfume produces a potent and wide variety of odors when burned. Flowers, tree bark, wood, and resin all can create a specific smell that mankind has incorporated into many facets of their daily lives. One use of incense is with a ‘Censer’, which was an ornately decorated bowl. The ancient Egyptians used such a device in many of their religious ceremonies. Two of the three gifts brought by the Three Wise Men to the birth of Christ were myrrh and frankincense, both types of incense. Today incense is used for the pleasing aromas they give off and for ceremonies in many Christian churches.

Spice

Spice is a luxury resource that make content people happy in cities that are connected to it by domestic or foreign trade routes.

Spice is always visible on the map and can be found in forests and jungles.

Certain types of plants have evolved in such a way that they produce mild toxins or repellents that make their odor or flavor distasteful to animals. Oddly enough, humans because of these smells and tastes sought out many of these plants. Merchants in the Middle East began a profitable spice trade before 2000 BC. Spices are used now, as they were in the ancient world, to preserve food and enhance its flavor. Although spices are now commercially cultivated and prepared, most types can still be found in abundance in nature. Many of the most popular spices, such as cloves and nutmeg, are extracted from plants that grow in tropical or swampy regions of the world.

Ivory

Ivory is a luxury resource that make content people happy in cities that are connected to it by domestic or foreign trade routes.

Ivory is always visible on the map and can be found in forests and plains.

Ivory, the hard substance of which elephant tusks are composed, is highly sought for the carving of ornamental objects. Most ivory is obtained from the tusks of African elephants, but other sources include the tusks of walruses and the fossilized tusks of prehistoric elephants and mammoths found in the northern glacial regions of the world. Although importation of ivory has been banned in many countries due to the fact that many of the species from which it is obtained are now endangered, the ivory trade was once a widespread and profitable venture.

Silk

Silk is a luxury resource that make content people happy in cities that are connected to it by domestic or foreign trade routes.

Silk is always visible on the map and can be found in forests and jungles.

Silk has been a valuable commodity for textiles since its properties were discovered in the 27th century BC. Silk is obtained from the cocoon of the silkworm moth, which was originally native to the forests of China. The fine fibers of the cocoon are woven into cloth, which is used to make all types of clothing. Raw silk was obtained only from Asia until 550 AD, when two monks sent from the Roman Empire secretly stole silkworm eggs from China and brought them to Europe. Eventually, silkworms were found in many areas throughout the world. Less expensive synthetic fibers of the 20th century led to a decline in the silk market, but silk is still very popular in many types of clothing and other goods.

Diamonds

Gems are luxury resources that make content people happy in cities that are connected to it by domestic or foreign trade routes.

Gems are always visible on the map and can be found in mountains and jungles.

Royalty in Asia have worn diamond jewelry for thousands of years, but this versatile substance has many uses. The hardest material known to man (natural or synthetic), diamonds are created over millions of years. After natural flora dies and is covered by earth, it is turned into carbon over the centuries. Diamonds are pure carbon, but in the form of a mineral. There is no shortage of uses for such a resilient substance, including wartime applications like manufacturing, cutting and drilling. World War II found the Allies in strong position because of these benefits, since the British colony of South Africa produced over half the world’s supply.

Bonus Resources

Whales

Whales are bonus resources that enhance city production. To get the bonus, the resource must be inside the city's radius and a citizen laborer must work the square.

Whales are always visible on the map; they are found only in Sea.

Whaling, the hunting and killing of whales for oil and other byproducts, was practiced as an organized industry as early as 875 AD. By the 16th century, it had risen to be the principle industry in the coastal regions of Spain and France. The industry spread throughout the world, and became increasingly profitable in terms of trade and resources. Some regions of the world's oceans, along the animals' migration routes, had a particularly dense whale population, and became the targets for large concentrations of whaling ships, and the industry continued to grow well into the 20th century. The depletion of some whale species to near extinction led to the banning of whaling in many countries by 1969, and to a worldwide cessation of whaling as an industry in the late 1980s.

Game

Game is a bonus resource that enhances city production. To get the bonus, the resource must be inside the city's radius and a citizen laborer must work the square.

Game is always visible in explored areas of the map and can be found in forests, tundra and marsh.

Since ancient times, hunting of game animals has been important both for survival and for sport. Forested areas containing a large concentration of deer, elk, and smaller game were very valuable as a source of food for nearby settlements and cities. Though the widespread practice of farming domestic animals for food purposes has made hunting for sport much more common than hunting for food, certain animals such as geese, ducks, and deer are still frequently hunted and killed for food.

Fish

Fish is a bonus resource that enhances city production. To get the bonus, the resource must be inside the city's radius and a citizen laborer must work the square.

Fish are always visible in explored areas of the map and can be found in Coast, Sea and Fresh Water Lake squares and marsh.

Prevailing winds, ocean currents, and deep-water trenches can often combine to produce conditions that are optimum for fishing. In areas such as the Pacific coast of Central and South America, offshore winds push the warm surface waters out to deeper waters. Underwater currents push cold, nutrient-rich water from deep below the surface back toward the coast. The high concentration of nutrients in this colder water, caused by decomposition of organic matter at extreme depths, creates an ideal environment for fish and other sea life. Civilizations with access to areas such as this can significantly increase their food supply by establishing a thriving fishing industry.

Cattle

Cattle are bonus resources that enhance city production. To get the bonus, the resource must be inside the city's radius and a citizen laborer must work the square.

Cattle are always visible in explored areas of the map and can be found in grassland and plains.

Descendants of the buffalo and bison, cattle fulfilled many uses in man’s past and present. Originally wild herds of these beasts roamed vast stretches of Asia, Africa and Europe. Their early contributions to mankind were those of labor, goods and food, though the horse soon replaced them as the preferred beast of burden. The Romans were the first people to attempt to breed cattle to promote specific traits over others. Their ability to survive in arid areas unsuitable for farming became a premier benefit of these new breeds. In 1521 Spaniards introduced them to Mexico and the New World, leading to extensive cattle ranching throughout Texas and other neighboring regions. Today there are over 100 million head of cattle in the United States alone.

Wheat

Wheat is a bonus resource that enhances city production. To get the bonus, the resource must be inside the city's radius and a citizen laborer must work the square.

Wheat is always visible in explored areas of the map and can be found in grassland, plains, and floodplains.

Wheat has been a staple crop for civilizations occupying temperate zones of the planet since pre-historic times. There is archeological evidence that bread wheat was cultivated in southern Turkestan as early as 6000 BC, though naturally occurring wheat was probably used for food purposes much earlier. Throughout the temperate zones, wheat has become the primary food crop. It is particularly well suited for growth in vast, open plains like those found in the central United States.

Gold

Gold is a bonus resource that significantly enhances city production of commerce (gold). To get the bonus, the resource must be inside the city's radius and a citizen laborer must work the square.

Gold is always visible in explored areas of the map and can be found in mountains and hills.

Gold has always been one of the most highly valued metals in the world. It is used in the manufacture of everything from jewelry to electronics, and has been established as the basis for monetary systems worldwide. The factor that makes gold valuable is its rarity. Although gold can be found in many different areas, the most valuable deposits are large veins of gold ore running through mountains. When a large deposit is found, mining the deposit greatly boosts the economy in settlements and cities near the mine. Historical examples of this phenomenon are the many towns that grew and prospered over a relatively short time during the California gold rush in America during the 1800s.

Bananas

Tropical Fruit is a bonus resource that enhances city production. To get the bonus, the resource must be inside the city's radius and a citizen laborer must work the square.

Tropical Fruit is always visible in explored areas of the map and can be found only in jungles.

This resource represents any of a myriad number of tropical fruits that include pomegranates, pineapples, mangoes, mangosteens, carambolas (star fruit), bananas, papayas, avocados, breadfruits, coffee, guavas, lychees, moyas, passion fruits, rambutans, tamarinds, durians, cikus, jackfruits, watermelons, and pomeloes. Jungles provide many food resources to native populations, and these exotic fruits are in high demand for variety throughout the rest of the world.

Oasis

Oases are a bonus resource that enhances city production. To get the bonus, the resource must be inside the city's radius and a citizen laborer must work the square.

An oasis is always visible in explored areas of the map and can be found only in desert.

An oasis is a fertile place in the desert caused by the presence of water from underground springs or rivers, or even by manmade wells. Date palms, fig trees, rice, wheat, cotton, vegetables, alfalfa, barley and wheat are all examples of commonly grown plants in oases. To desert cultures of old, oases were of vital importance as sites for agriculture, trading and manufacturing, and the cultures that frequented oases often established rigid codes of conduct regarding them. No one would be allowed to despoil an oasis, and if the unthinkable should happen, the penalty was often death. Most oases in the Arabian Peninsula became sites for shrines, and this added sanctity also brought about a further code of conduct, namely no one could shed blood at the oasis where the shrine was located. This allowed the often-warring tribes of Arabia neutral territory in which to trade or conduct peace negotiations. The Silk Road was mostly a series of oases across the forbidding territory of central Asia between China and the Middle East. Mecca, Cairo and Baghdad are examples of cities that originated because of an oasis, although all of these have grown much larger due to modern influences. In modern times, irrigation has also created oases, the most notable (and large) being the Imperial Valley in California.

Tobacco

Tobacco is a bonus resource that enhances city production. To get the bonus, the resource must be inside the city's radius and a citizen laborer must work the square.

Tobacco is always visible on the map and can be found in hills and grassland.

Many, many moons before the first modern Europeans began populating the shores of the 'New World' tobacco smoke carried prayers of the early Native Americans skyward to their Creator. It was not long after the Europeans landed, however, that they, too, began enjoying the intoxicating effects of tobacco. By the 16th century the Portuguese were planting limited quantities of it at small farms near their trading posts. Today the tobacco industry, though much maligned, is a multi-billion dollar a year business, and reaches around the world.

Sugar

Sugar is a bonus resource that enhances city production. To get the bonus, the resource must be inside the city's radius and a citizen laborer must work the square.

Sugar is always visible on the map and can be found in hills and plains.

Long has man had a 'sweet tooth', and long has sugar been used to satisfy it. Natural honey was doubtless the first type of sweet food enjoyed by ancient man, although a few bee stings had to be endured. Using the Sugar Cane plant to extract sweet juices probably originated in New Guinea. Its cultivation spread westward along trade routes, to southeast Asia, India, and eventually the Middle East and Europe. The actual process used to press the cane plant to extract its juices, and boiling the juice down to crystals, was evidently first done in India about 500 BC. Today sugar cane is an important staple crop in a number of countries, and its ultimate byproduct is enjoyed by countless people worldwide on a daily basis.

TERRAIN

Desert

Deserts are arid stretches of land characterized by annual rainfall of less than ten inches.

Deserts may contain incense, oases, oil, or saltpeter.

Because the desert atmosphere has such low humidity, evaporation of moisture from the ground exceeds precipitation. Many deserts are characterized by extremely high daytime temperatures and equally low nighttime temperatures. Only the hardiest plants and animals can survive in the harsh desert environment. Despite the perception that deserts are composed of useless sand, most desert soil is naturally fertile because little water moves through the desert to carry away nutrients. Through the use of artificial irrigation, humans have managed to grow crops in desert environments. If this is not done carefully, it can lead to irreversible environmental damage when the meager water supply that is tapped for the irrigation process is depleted.

Plains

Plains are vast, open tracts of land, usually with very few trees and covered with vegetation such as sagebrush and various grasses.

Plains may contain cattle, horses, ivory, sugar, wheat, or wine.

Plains are similar to grasslands, except that the topsoil is often not as well suited for growing food. Often, rich deposits of minerals are also found in plains regions. The indigenous plants of the plains make them well suited for grazing. Large herds of buffalo and other animals can often be found roaming the area. With the proper irrigation, plains can be easily cultivated into adequate farmland for the production of grains and the raising of livestock.

Grassland_with_Shield

The areas of land between desert regions and forests in temperate and tropical climates usually consist of grassland. Some grasslands contain mineral deposits and other useful materials. These have a rock outcropping to symbolize this and produce a Shield if worked in a City Radius.

Grassland may contain cattle, horses, wheat, or wine.

These fertile regions, covered with various types of vegetation, once occupied large areas of North and South America, Africa, and Eurasia. These areas are characterized by marked wet and dry seasons, with annual periods of drought. Although many types of grassland are naturally occurring, grasslands can also be created through deforestation of woodland areas. Grasslands are often cultivated and used as pastures and grazing lands. Because of the relatively low rainfall in these regions, the topsoil is high in nutrients. Grasslands are, therefore, well suited for growing crops, especially grain crops.

Grassland

The areas of land between desert regions and forests in temperate and tropical climates usually consist of grassland.

Grassland may contain cattle, horses, tobacco, wheat, or wine.

These fertile regions, covered with various types of vegetation, once occupied large areas of North and South America, Africa, and Eurasia. These areas are characterized by marked wet and dry seasons, with annual periods of drought. Although many types of grassland are naturally occurring, grasslands can also be created through deforestation of woodland areas. Grasslands are often cultivated and used as pastures and grazing lands. Because of the relatively low rainfall in these regions, the topsoil is high in nutrients. Grasslands are, therefore, well suited for growing crops, especially grain crops.

Tundra

Cold, barren permafrost found in polar regions, tundra may contain aluminum, furs, game, or oil.

In the far-northern regions of the world, and in isolated regions in the Antarctic, there are thousands of miles of barren plains known as tundra. These regions have an extremely low average temperature, and a very short summer season. The primary characteristic of the tundra is a layer of permanently frozen soil known as permafrost just below the topsoil layer, which prevents many plants from taking root and making agriculture all but impossible. Like deserts, the tundra receives little precipitation; however, the flat, frozen ground keeps groundwater from draining, forming bogs where various grasses, moss, and other simple vegetation can grow. Despite the harsh environment, a wide variety of animal life flourishes in the tundra, providing possible sources of food, and providing trade potential for the fur and trapping industry.

Flood Plains

Incredibly rich farm land, floodplains appear along riverbanks and, therefore, produce one extra food.

Floodplains may contain wheat.

Deserts are often very rich in their soil composition; it is only their lack of rainfall that prevents their soil from being used. When rivers run through such areas, the periodic flooding usually carries the nutrient rich soil up into the floodplains surrounding them, depositing the nutrients and the water into these areas and making them unparalleled in value. Many great cultures such as those in the Nile river basin or those dependent on the flooding of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers have harvested the bounty of these lands, plains which transform lifeless wastelands into lush oases of life.

Hills

Rolling areas of the countryside often found between plains and more mountainous regions are known as hills or foothills.

Hills may contain aluminum, coal, gold, horses, incense, iron, saltpeter, sugar, tobacco, or wine.

Hilly areas, often covered with rich soil and grasses or heavily forested, are rich in resources. Coal, iron, lead, copper, and even gold and silver may be found in these regions, making them profitable areas for the mining industry. In areas where the belowground resources are scarce, hill areas are often cultivated for agricultural purposes. Certain crops such as coffee and grapes thrive in these regions, given the proper climate.

Mountains

Mountains are areas of high elevation, usually consisting of a chain of rugged peaks and valleys.

Mountains may contain coal, gems, gold, iron, saltpeter, or uranium.

Mountains are formed when the plates making up the Earth's crust impact or slide against one another, raising layers of rock above the surrounding land. Mountains can also be formed by volcanic action, or through the effects of erosion. Generally poor agricultural regions, mountains are often a source of great mineral wealth, with large deposits of gold and other valuable ores. Aside from their economic value, mountains provide a natural defensive barrier, shielding human settlements from invaders. Extensive mountain ranges can also greatly affect the weather patterns of a region by blocking and diverting wind and storms.

Forest

Extensive areas of land covered by thick growths of trees and related ground vegetation are classified as forests.

Forests may contain dyes, furs, game, ivory, rubber, spice, silk, or uranium.

There are several different types of forest, determined primarily by climate and the type of vegetation they contain. Forests of some type exist on nearly every continent in the world. Forests are a valuable source of natural resources, providing wood for paper products, building, and other purposes. The harvesting of trees must be done carefully, however. If not done in moderation, lumbering can destroy the natural habitat for indigenous animal species, and destroy the ecology of the land. Government regulations limiting the amount of trees that can be cut, and requiring the lumber industry to plant new trees to replace what they have harvested, help to prevent major ecological damage as a result of deforestation.

Jungle

Jungles cover a significant portion of the equatorial areas of the world. Supplies of rubber can be found there, but also disease.

Jungles may contain tropical fruit, coal, dyes, gems, rubber, silk, or spice.

In heavily forested areas where rainfall is high, the growth of both trees and other indigenous plants is profuse. The dense, tangled environment of the jungle is home to wide varieties of plant and animal life. Although mineral deposits and fruit-bearing plants can sometimes be found in these regions, jungles tend to lack both mineral and food resources. This, combined with the sheer density of the native plant life, makes jungles inhospitable to humans. In order to make these areas more useful, jungles are often destroyed through deforestation and burning to yield areas of grassland. While this improves the usefulness of the land for humans, it destroys the habitat of the indigenous animals of the region. It is estimated that hundreds of undiscovered species of insect and animal life are made extinct every day as a result of the destruction of jungles and rain forests.

Coast

Shallow by comparison with sea or ocean squares, coastal waters appear along the shorelines of land masses. Initially, naval units that leave the comfort of coastal areas risk loss in treacherous seas. But after the discovery of astronomy, this danger vanishes.

Coastal squares can contain fish.

The oceans and seas of the world cover almost three-quarters of our planet. They are home to millions of life forms ranging from microscopic plankton to whales, the largest mammals in the world. The animals and plants that inhabit the sea provide an excellent source of food. For centuries, coastal and island cultures have thrived on the resources and easy access to trade provided by the sea. Unfortunately, in many parts of the world, a combination of over-harvesting of marine animals and increased pollution has begun to threaten fragile coastal ecologies. Some species of marine life are seriously threatened. For example, the whaling industry, which thrived in the 19th and early 20th century, is responsible for hunting certain species of whales to near-extinction. Government regulations concerning the dumping of pollutants and the indiscriminate harvesting of marine life are constantly being updated in response to these growing problems.

Sea

Sea squares are significant barriers to trade and travel until the discovery of astronomy.

Seas may contain fish or whales.

The oceans and seas of the world cover almost three-quarters of our planet. They are home to millions of life forms ranging from microscopic plankton to whales, the largest mammals in the world. The animals and plants that inhabit the sea provide an excellent source of food. For centuries, coastal and island cultures have thrived on the resources and easy access to trade provided by the sea. Unfortunately, in many parts of the world, a combination of over-harvesting of marine animals and increased pollution has begun to threaten fragile coastal ecologies. Some species of marine life are seriously threatened. For example, the whaling industry, which thrived in the 19th and early 20th century, is responsible for hunting certain species of whales to near-extinction. Government regulations concerning the dumping of pollutants and the indiscriminate harvesting of marine life are constantly being updated in response to these growing problems.

Ocean

Ocean squares are significant barriers to trade and travel until the discovery of Navigation or Magnetism.

The oceans and seas of the world cover almost three-quarters of our planet. They are home to millions of life forms ranging from microscopic plankton to whales, the largest mammals in the world. The animals and plants that inhabit the sea provide an excellent source of food. For centuries, coastal and island cultures have thrived on the resources and easy access to trade provided by the sea. Unfortunately, in many parts of the world, a combination of over-harvesting of marine animals and increased pollution has begun to threaten fragile coastal ecologies. Some species of marine life are seriously threatened. For example, the whaling industry, which thrived in the 19th and early 20th century, is responsible for hunting certain species of whales to near-extinction. Government regulations concerning the dumping of pollutants and the indiscriminate harvesting of marine life are constantly being updated in response to these growing problems.

River

Rivers do not run in squares: instead they run along the edges of squares. Any square with a river along its edge produces one extra commerce if worked by citizen laborers within a city radius. Also, rivers are sources of fresh water, allowing irrigation of adjacent squares without electricity.

The value of a clean source of fresh water to a population cannot be underestimated, and river banks have always been prized sites for settlements. In addition to fresh water for drinking, irrigation, and waste removal, rivers are valuable trade routes and have been used to aid the defense of the settlements on their banks.

Fresh_Water_Lake

Lakes are bodies of water completely surrounded by land. They contain fresh water, allowing irrigation of adjacent squares without electricity.

The shores of fresh water lakes have always been greatly valued sites on which to build because of the abundance of fresh water for drinking and irrigation. Lakes are also rich sources of food and commercial products, and harvesting such resources is a boon to any nearby settlement.

Marsh

An extensive area of soft, low-lying terrain is known as a Marsh. The fetid conditions of a marsh can sometimes cause disease.

Marsh may contain fish, game, oil, or rubber.

River deltas and other low-lying areas are often surrounded by poorly drained mineral beds. This leads to the formation of marshes, large, water-logged areas vibrant with grasses and other plant life. Marshes are often extremely complex ecosystems home to hundreds of different plant and animal species. Rice and other food plants requiring large quantities of water can be grown in marshes, although the soil underneath may not be sufficiently hospitable. Due to the soft nature of the ground, marsh is generally unsuitable for building purposes.

Volcano

A Volcano is a mountain capped by a large crater which can, on rare occasions, erupt and spew forth streams of molten lava.

Heat rises. This is the reason, in a nutshell, for the presence of volcanoes on the earth. Mountainous manifestations of vents and cracks in the earth's crust, volcanoes provide release for the heat that builds up in the earth's core. A volcanic eruption occurs when the heat pressure underneath a particular vent becomes too strong for the crust to contain, and depending on the size of the vent and the amount of pressure an eruption can be minor (just a dribble of lava that seals off the volcano when it dries) or cataclysmic (such as the Krakatoa or Vesuvius eruptions).

Terrain Improvements

Mine

A mine increases the shield production of a square.

Terrain	Produces	If mined, produces
Grasslands	0 shields	1
Grasslands w/ outcropping	1 shields	2
Plains	1	2
Hills	1	3
Mountains	1	3

Workers are ordered to dig mines by pressing M, or the "Build Mine" button.

Irrigation

Irrigation increases food production. Only squares adjacent to fresh water (river or lake) or to another irrigated square may be irrigated. After the discovery of Electricity, you can irrigate a tile without proximity to fresh water.

Terrain	Produces	If irrigated, produces
Floodplains	3 food,	4 if irrigated.
Grasslands	2 food,	3 if irrigated.
Plains	1 food,	2 if irrigated.

Workers are ordered to irrigate by pressing I or the "Irrigate" button.

Road

Roads increase the output of commerce and can be built in any terrain except water squares. Also, units moving along roads expend one third of a movement point per square, regardless of terrain type.

Terrain	Produces	With road, produces
Floodplains	1 commerce,	2 with a road.
Grasslands	0 commerce,	1 with a road.
Plains	0 commerce,	1 with a road.
Hills	0 commerce,	1 with a road.
Mountains	0 commerce,	1 with a road.
Forests	0 commerce,	1 with a road.
Jungles	0 commerce,	1 with a road.

Workers are ordered to build roads by pressing R or the "Build Road" button.

Fortress

Units within a fortress enjoy a +50% defensive bonus, as well as a zone of control.

Workers are ordered to build fortresses by pressing Ctrl-F, or the "Build Fortification" button.

Barricade

A barricade hinders movement of "enemy" ground units, forcing them to stop on the barricade's square, even if the barricade is unoccupied. However, if occupied, a unit in a barricade enjoy a defensive bonus which is double the bonus awarded by a fortress. A barricade can only be built on a square already containing a fortress. If pillaged, a barricade is "reduced" to a fortress.

Workers can build barricades after the discovery of Construction.

Railroad

Units moving along a railroad expend zero movement points. Railroads also increase the output of irrigation or mines.

Workers can build railroads after the discovery of Steam Power, but only if your civilization has access to the Strategic Resources Iron and Coal.

Workers are ordered to build railroads by pressing Shift-R or the "Build Railroad" button.

Build_Colony

A worker can establish a colony on any square that contains a tradable resource. If the colony is then connected to a city, that city gains access to the resource. A colony is necessary only if the resource is not inside your borders. Note that when a city's borders expand to include a colony, the colony disappears because it is no longer needed. The worker is consumed by building a colony.

A worker is ordered to build a colony by pressing B or the "Build Colony" button.

Clear_Forest

A worker can clear the forest from a square and contribute 10 shields to the nearest controlled city. The resulting terrain will be either grasslands, plains, or tundra, depending upon the base terrain beneath the forest.

A worker is ordered to clear forests by pressing Shift-C or the "Clear Forest" button in a forest square.

Clear_Wetlands

A worker can clear the jungle or marsh from a square, creating either floodplains or grasslands.

A worker is ordered to clear jungle or marsh by pressing Shift-C or the "Clear Wetlands" button in a jungle or marsh square.

Plant_Forest

After the discovery of Engineering, workers can plant forests in any grassland or plains square. This transforms the square into a normal forest square.

A worker is ordered to plant forests by pressing N or the "Plant Forest" button.

Clear_Damage

A worker can repair a damaged square (cleaning up pollution and volcanic fallout, and filling in bomb craters), thus restoring the square to its former production capacity.

A worker is ordered to clear damage by pressing Shift-C or the "Clear Damage" button.

Airfield

Airfields function in the same manner that a city with an airport would for air units. To construct an Airfield, move a worker to any neutral or owned land tile and select the Build Airfield unit action. Construction of the Airfield consumes the worker. Airfields can be a re-base mission destination. All air missions can be launched from an airfield, and there is no limit to the number of aircraft that can be re-based at an Airfield. Airfields can only be used by the player who created it. If it falls into the territory of another civilization, however, the airfield becomes solely useable by the player whose territory it lies in (unless they have yet to research Flight, in which case the airfield is destroyed). Airfields can only be built in tiles that are empty or have a road and/or railroad. The "Build Airfield" unit-action becomes available after the Flight advance is researched.

Outpost

Outposts eliminate fog of war. To construct an Outpost, move a worker to any land tile in neutral or owned territory and select the Build Outpost unit action. Construction of the Outpost consumes the worker. The range of vision for the Outpost is 2 tiles on flat terrain, 3 on hills and 4 on mountains. Outposts can only be used by the player who created them. If an Outpost falls within the territory of any other civilization, it will be destroyed. Outposts can only be built in tiles that are empty or have a mine, irrigation, road and/or a railroad. The "Build Outpost" unit-action becomes available after the Masonry advance is researched.

Build Radar Tower (Ctrl-T)

Radar towers provide a combat bonus to units within their affected area. They must be built within your territory. They can be built after the discovery of Advanced Flight.

Game Concepts

Food

Every citizen must eat two food per turn or die. Luckily, most citizens labor in the areas around their city, yielding some combination of food, shields, and commerce, and feeding themselves in the process.

In some cases, a citizen produces more food than he needs and the excess is put into his city's food storage box each turn. When it is full, the storage is emptied and the city grows, adding one citizen to its population.

In other cases, a city does not grow enough food to sustain its population, so food is drawn out of the storage box to make up the shortfall. If a city cannot feed its population either from new production or stored food, one of its citizens starves and disappears.

Food production fundamentally depends upon the terrain within the city radius, because citizens laboring there produce food. When the City Display is open, you can see what the citizens are producing.

A citizen working	Produces this much food	Produces this much food if irrigated
Floodplains	3	4
Grasslands	2	3
Plains	1	2
Hills	1	cannot be irrigated.
Forests	1	cannot be irrigated.
Marsh	1	cannot be irrigated.
Coastal	1	cannot be irrigated.
Sea	1	cannot be irrigated.
Jungle	1	cannot be irrigated.
Tundra	1	cannot be irrigated.
Fresh Water Lake	2	cannot be irrigated.
Desert	0	1
Mountain	0	cannot be irrigated.
Volcano	0	cannot be irrigated.

Note that some natural resources provide bonus food as well.

Number Keypad

With your Num Lock "on," you can use the number keypad to move your units. Think of the numbers as the eight directions on a compass.
1 = move Southwest
2 = move South
3 = move Southeast
4 = move West
6 = move East
7 = move Northwest
8 = move North
9 = move Northeast

Overpopulation

Depending upon the level of difficulty you choose to play, overpopulation affects your cities at different stages. In each city, a number of citizens are born content. Thereafter, the rest are born unhappy. The number born content are as follows.

Difficulty	Content Citizens
Chieftain	4
Warlord	3
Regent	2
Monarch	2
Emperor	1
Demigod	1
Deity	1
Sid	1

Overpopulation can also result in starvation.

Defender Combat Bonus

Terrain		Bonuses
Grasslands		10%
Plains		10%
Desert		10%
Floodplains		10%
Tundra		10%
Ocean		10%
Sea		10%
Coast		10%
Fresh Water Lake		10%
Marsh		20%
*River		25%
Forest		25%
Jungles		25%
Hills		50%
Volcano		80%
Mountains		100%

Structural		Bonuses
Fortified Units		+25%
Fortress		+50%
Barricade		+100%
Town Walls		+50%
Civil Defense		+50%
City		+50%
Metro		+100%

*This bonus applies to the defender if attacked from the other side of a river.

Cities with resisters do not give defensive bonuses.

Hotkeys: Unit Commands

Settler/Worker Actions
Build Road	R
* Road to	Ctrl-R
Build Rail	Shift-R
* Rail to	Ctrl-Shift-R
Build Road/Rail Net	Ctrl-N
Build/Join city/colony	B
* Road then Colony	Ctrl-B
Irrigate	I
* Irrigate to city	Ctrl-I
Improve Nearest City	Shift-I
Improve Nearest City/Without Altering	Ctrl-Shift-I
Build Mine	M
Build Fortress/Barricade	Ctrl-F
Plant Forest	N
Clear Pollution/Forest/Jungle/Marsh	Shift-C
* Clear all Forest	Shift-F
* Clear all Wetlands	Shift-W
* Clear all Damage	Shift-D
Automate Worker	A
Automate Worker (virgin terrain)	Shift-A

Air Missions
Bombing	B
Recon	R
Air Superiority	S
Re-Base	Shift-R
Precision Strike	P

General Unit Commands
Hold (don't move)	Spacebar
Wait (until end of turn)	W
Fortify/Garrison/Sleep	F
Go to	G
* Stack Go to	X, J
* Stack Go to With Same Units	Ctrl-X, Ctrl-J
Disband	D
Load/unload	L
Explore	E
Pillage	Shift-P
Bombard	B
Airdrop	P
Airlift	T
Sentry	Y
* Sentry (Until Enemy Contact)	Shift-Y

Special Actions and Orders
Upgrade Unit	U
* Upgrade all Obsolete Units	Shift-U
Build Army	B
Hurry City Production	Ctrl-H

Hotkeys: Game Controls

Main Controls
End Turn	Shift-ENTER
Save Game	Ctrl-S
Load Game	Ctrl-L
Start New Game	Ctrl-Shift-Q
Retire	Ctrl-Q
Quit	ESC
Civilopedia	Ctrl-C

Map Controls
Center map on Active unit	C
Clear Map	Ctrl-Shift-M
Zoom in/out	Z
Map Grid on/off	Ctrl-G
Locate City	Shift-L
Center on Capital	H

Advisors and miscellaneous
Domestic Advisor	F1
Trade Advisor	F2
Military Advisor	F3
Foreign Advisor	F4
Cultural Advisor	F5
Science Advisor	F6
Wonders of the World	F7
Victory Status Screen	F8
Palace	F9
Spaceship	F10
Demographics	F11
Preferences	Ctrl-P
Audio Preferences	Shift-S
Change Governments	Shift-G
Change Mobilization	Shift-M

Diplomacy and Espionage
Plant Spy	Ctrl+Shift+E
Establish Embassy	Ctrl+E
Use Embassy or Spy	Shift+E
Diplomatic Contact	Shift+D
Espionage	E

City Window
Hurry Production	H
Add to Production Queue	Shift+Click
Governor	G

Multiplayer
Center on Message Location	Ctrl-M
Pause	Pause
Perform Automation	Ctrl-U
Send Voice Message	Tab
Send Text Message	~~

Craters

Craters can occur in a non-city square due to bombardment attack. When a bombardment attack which eliminates the last unit or terrain improvement in a square, a crater may be formed. Like pollution, the presence of craters reduces a square's production, commerce, and food output by one.

Clearing Craters Craters can be cleaned up by workers.

Barricades

When a civilization has learned construction, its workers know how to construct stone and masonry barricades, which are even more formidable than Fortresses.

A Barricades can only be built on a square already containing a Fortress. Even if unoccupied, barricades automatically stops movement of a ground unit entering its square (unless that unit belongs to the same civilization currently controlling the barricade's square, or if that unit has a Right of Passage agreement through that land. Barricades become a fortress if their square is pillaged.

Military units inside barricades have a few advantages.
* They get a 100% defensive bonus if attacked (i.e., twice the defensive bonus being in a Fortress).
* The zone of control exerted by the fortress still applies to a barricades.

Bombardment in Ports

A ship moored at a dock, or at anchor, is unable to quickly maneuver. Therefore, naval units "in port" (i.e., in a coastal city square being bombarded) are especially vulnerable to bombardment attacks.

A city can have naval bombardment defense if its citizen build a Coastel Fortress.

Collateral Damage

An attack by a unit with the “Collateral Damage” capability can potentially damage improvements in the attacked square during the attack, representing damage to improvements, local structures or residents due to combat (but not necessarily due to bombardment).

Enslavement

Enslavement allows a unit to potentially "enslave" a combatant (instead of killing it) when it wins a battle. A unit with the "enslave" capability has a 1/3 chance of enslaving a defeated unit everytime it wins a battle. As soon as the battle is over, the game determines if the defeated unit is enslaved; if so, the unit is turned into another unit type (as specificed in the editor) and is immediately under the control of the victorious player. The Privateer, the English Man-O-War, and the Mayan Javelin Thrower have the Enslavement capability.

Landmark Terrain

A pre-designed scenario (only) might feature "Landmark Terrain", which essentially is a variation on a standard terrain type in order to alter that terrain's shield (production), food or commerce value(s). If the game preference for Show Food and Shields on Map is ON, Landmark Terrain squares are shown on the game map by a small gold diamond outline. As usual, information about a square's terrain can always be determined by right-clicking on it.

Locked Alliances

A pre-designed scenario (only) might begin with some (or all) civilizations grouped into several "Locked Alliances". Members of a Locked Alliance have a permanent Mutual Protection Pact with each other. Therefore, a civilization that is part of a Locked Alliance is not allowed to conduct any type of attack against another member of its alliance. Furthermore, if any civilization attacks another nation that is part of a Locked Alliance, the attacker will find itself at war with all nations member to that Locked Alliance.

Permanent War A Locked Alliance (and all of its member civilizations) might also find itself permanently at war -- right from the start of the scenario -- with another Locked Alliance if so dictated by the scenario. Such a war is permanent, and only ends when all members of one of the warring alliances have been eliminated (or the scenario's time limit is reached).

Coalition Victory A scenario featuring one or more Locked Alliances might specify that "Coalition Victory Conditions" are in effect. In this case, victory criteria (score, victory points, cultural value, etc.) are summed for all allied players in each Locked Alliance. As soon as any coalition has fulfilled the scenario's victory conditions the scenario ends and all civilizations member to the winning coalition are awarded victory.

Volcanic Eruptions

A Volcano is a disaster waiting to happen, as it can suddenly erupt with no warning. Most of the time, however, a dark cloud begins to emanate from the volcano's "mouth" a few turns in advance of an eruption -- but such a warning cannot be guaranteed. Rest assured, however, once you notice a volcano beginning to smolder an eruption is in the offing.

Lava Flow When a volcano erupts it spews forth lava -- in the form of Pollution -- that will mar the landscape of many of the tiles adjacent to the volcanic mountain. Volcanic "fallout" can be cleaned up by workers set to clean up damage.

Plague

The sudden appearance of The Plague can be a devastating event. Plague, if and when it occurs, can wipe out city population and land units (except Kings). The effect of plague is exacerbated in larger cities, walled cities and cities with commerce and a trade network. Once the concept of Sanitation is understood the effect of plague is much reduced.

Power Plants

Once a city has a factory, it may also build a Power Plant. There are four kinds:

Coal Plant
Increases factory output by 50%.

Hydro Plant
Increases factory output by 50%.

Nuclear Plant
Increases factory output by 100%.

Solar Plant
Increases factory output by 50%.

Revolution

If your civilization has knowledge of more than one system of government, you can cause a revolution to usher in a new system of government.

On the Domestic Advisor click the "Government" button to start a revolution.

Zone of Control

Some military units have a zone of control that influences the eight squares surrounding the unit. This represents the unit's ability to project its combat power into surrounding areas. Such units attack enemies that enter the zone of control without initiating a full battle.

The following military units have a zone of control:
* Aegis Cruisers
* Armies
* Cavalry
* German Panzers
* Mechanized Infantry
* Modern Armor
* Mongol Keshik
* Ottoman Sipahi
* Modern Paratroops
* Radar Artillery
* Russian Cossacks
* Spanish Conquistador
* Tanks

Supporting Military Units

Generally, each military unit must be supported with one gold per turn from its treasury. However, each form of government defers these costs for a certain number of units, depending upon how many towns, cities, or metros the civilization controls.

Government	Town	City	Metro
Anarchy	0	0	0
Despotism	4	4	4
Monarchy	2	4	8
Republic	1	3	4
Feudalism	5	2	1
Communism	6	6	6
Fascism	4	7	10
Democracy	0	0	0

Governments

There are eight forms of government that you can use to control your civilization. Each has advantages and disadvantages. The type of government you use determines:

How efficient your workers are (how quickly they get their jobs done).
How much Corruption and Waste affects your civilization.
The number of citizens you can draft per turn.
The number of military units that can be used as military police.
The number of military units you can have before you must support them from your treasury.

The possible government types are:
* Anarchy
* Despotism
* Monarchy
* Republic
* Feudalism
* Communism
* Fascism
* Democracy

To change your form of government, you must have a revolution.

Mobilization

When a civilization develops Nationalism, it can Mobilize its economy for war. Mobilize your economy using the "Mobilization" button on the Domestic Advisor.

Effects of Mobilization
* During mobilization a city building a military unit produces one extra shield in every square that is already producing at least one.
A civilization that is mobilized:
* May only build military units and military city improvements.
* May not build peacetime improvements.
* May not return to Normalcy until a Peace Treaty is signed.

During Mobilization workers, settlers and explorers can be built, but will not receive the production bonus.

Barbarians

Barbarian tribes inhabit every continent of the world and there are two types: Passive and Aggressive.

Passive Tribes
Passive barbarians reside in small villages. When you send a unit into one of these villages, several things can happen -- some good and some bad. Possible results range from learning a new Civilization Advance to enraging the residents and having to battle them.

Aggressive Tribes
These named tribes also reside in villages on the map, but they send out raiding parties to fight your units and pillage your cities and towns. By destroying a tribal village you can stop the raids from that village. But the survivors will move to a new site in explored or unexplored territory and begin raiding from there.

Civilization Strengths

There are eight areas in which civilizations have natural strengths. Each strength gives a civilization one free Advance and one rules advantage as outlined below:

Agricultural
Agricultural city improvements (aqueduct, for instance) are easier to build, and the center city square and irrigated deserts produce one more food.

Commercial
The center city squares of all cities and metros produce extra commerce, and less corruption is experienced.

Expansionist
The civilization starts the game with a scout and can build more later, and passive minor barbarians are friendlier.

Industrious
Workers complete tasks faster and the center city square of all cities produces extra shields in cities and metros.

Militaristic
It is easier to build military improvements (barracks, for example), and combat experience is gained more quickly.

Religious
Religious civilizations do not experience prolonged periods of anarchy during revolutions, and religious city improvements (Temples, for instance) are easier to build.

Scientific
Scientific city improvements (like research labs) are easier to build and the civilization receives a free Civilization Advance at the start of every era.

Seafaring
Each city built along the coast receives a commerce bonus in the center city square, and Seafaring city improvements (such as the Harbor or Commercial Dock) are easier to build. Ships move faster and are less likely to sink in the sea or ocean.

Draft

When a civilization develops Nationalism its citizens can be drafted into military service. Each city can draft some of its population each turn, depending upon the government currently in effect.
* A civilization in Anarchy may not use the draft.
* A city in a Democracy or Republic can draft one citizen per turn.
* A city in a country under Communism, Despotism, Fascism, Feudalism, or Monarchy can draft two citizens per turn.

To utilize the draft, press the "Draft" button on the City Display. You may only draft citizens from a city with a population of 7 or higher.

The draft produces the following conscript units, depending upon your level of scientific development:

Spearman
Pikeman
Musketman
Rifleman
Infantry
Mech. Infantry

However, drafting citizens will cause unhappiness in the city.

Maintenance

Some city improvements must be maintained after they are built. This maintenance cost is paid from your treasury once every turn.

These buildings require one gold per turn.
Aqueduct, Bank, Barracks, Civil Defense, Courthouse, Granary, Harbor, Library, Marketplace, and Temple.

These require two gold per turn
Airport, Cathedral, Colosseum, Commercial Dock, Hospital, Mass Transit System, Police Station, Recycling Center, Research Lab, SAM Battery, and University.

These require three gold per turn
Factory, Manufacturing Plant, Offshore Platform, Stock Exchange, and all Power plants.

Combat

There are four types of combat: ground/naval combat, bombardment, missile attacks, and air combat.
Ground/Naval combat occurs when units of different civilizations try to occupy the same square. The two units trade blows until one of them loses its health bar and is destroyed. The winner may be damaged (its health bar is reduced).
Bombardment occurs when a ranged unit or air unit attacks without entering the defender's square. Bombardment inflicts losses to the defender's health bar but never completely destroys them. Air bombardment is the same except the planes fly to the target and may be shot down on the way.
Missile attacks are like bombardment, but the unit never returns to its base and the attacks can destroy enemy units.
Air combat occurs between air units.

Repairing Damage
A unit that takes damage in combat but survives can heal, adding one block per turn back to its health bar. To do so, it
* must be in friendly or neutral territory.
* must not move for a complete turn.

Repairing Faster
A city with a barracks heals ground units completely in one turn.
A city with a harbor heals sea units completely in one turn.
A city with an airport heals air units completely in one turn.
A civilization with Battlefield Medicine heals in enemy territory.

City Defection

Cities with little culture who are members of culturally-poor civilizations can defect to other, stronger, more impressive civilizations. This can occur when the city is located close to a culturally rich rival civilization or when foreign nationals are still present in the city.

Defections are made more likely by:
* The presence of foreign nationals of the other civilization in the city.
* The application of propaganda by the other civilization.
* Civil disorder in the city.
* The proximity of foreign territory.
* The proximity of a foreign capital.

Defections are made less likely by:
* The presence of ground combat units in the city.
* We Love The ____ Day.
* The proximity of your capital.

Air Missions

Air units are not moved around the map like other units. Instead, they are stationed in a city, and assigned missions which they execute immediately against targets within their operational range.

When an air unit is active, choose the mission you want it to perform (command button or hot key) and choose a target within the plane's range.

Air Superiority (S)
The plane attempts to intercept enemy aircraft that attack targets within the inner half of its operational range.

Bombing Mission (B)
The plane flies to the target and attacks, sometimes affecting city improvements, and sometimes population.

Precision Strike (P)
Performed by stealth aircraft, precision strikes destroy city improvements only, unless there are none in which case population is affected.

Recon Mission (R)
The plane flies to the target and reveals the map.

Re-Base Mission (Ctrl-R)
The unit can be moved to another city or a carrier a distance equal to up to Six times the plane's operational range.

Transport

Some naval and one air unit can carry or transport other units.

Ships
Ships can be boarded from any shoreline by simply moving the rider onto the ship. They may also be boarded from inside a coastal city by right-clicking the unit in the garrison box and selecting from the menu, or using the Load command button when on the main map.

Helicopters
Helicopters are the only air unit that can transport ground units, and they may only be foot soldiers. To board a helicopter a ground unit must start its turn in a city with the chopper and use the Load command button.

Espionage

Once a civilization learns Espionage and builds an Intelligence Agency,it can conduct espionage missions to find out classified information about other civilizations, friend and foe. Espionage can also be used to harm a rival or sabotage his production. Remember though, failed missions can seriously damage your reputation.

Espionage Screen:

The Espionage screen is comprised of: current opponents, available missions, your current asset information, city selection, and operational cost options. This screen is available for use once a player has discovered Writing.

Your opponents are displayed followed by icons that indicate your Espionage status within that civilization. If the Embassy Icon is displayed, you currently have an embassy within that civilization's capitol city. If the Spy icon is present, you have a spy planted within that civilization.

The mission area displays the various diplomatic and clandestine espionage options which you may currently engage in. When an espionage mission button has been selected. The following is a list of espionage and diplomatic missions that may be performed:

The assets section provides a summary of your current monetary and technological assets, including the amount of gold in your treasury, your technological achievements (those that apply to espionage), and your level of spy experience

The operational cost options allow you to set the level of risk you are willing to undertake with regard to the current mission. The controls for executing and canceling missions are also located in this area.

The following is a list of espionage missions that may be performed (note that most missions become available after you have researched Espionage):

Establish Embassy - Attempts to establish an embassy with the currently selected Civilization.

Plant Spy - This option attempts to plant a spy with the currently selected Civilization.

Steal Technology - This option attempts to Steal a Technology from the currently selected Civilization.

Steal Military Plans - Use a spy to steal military plans of a rival, which reveals the locations of all their military units.

Initiate Propaganda - Initiate propaganda against the city where the spy resides. If successful, the people will revolt and defect to your side.

Expose Enemy Spy - If you suspect a rival has planted a spy in one of your cities you can attempt to expose the intruder.

Investigate City - This option attempts to Investigate a City belonging to the currently selected Civilization.

Steal World Map - Use a spy to steal a world map from a rival.

Sabotage Production - Use a spy to destroy all the shields in the production box of a rival city.

Espionage Missions

Launching a Diplomatic or Spy Mission:

You can launch certain diplomatic missions at any time after the discovery of Writing. Other missions become available as your level of technology increases. Spy missions become available after you have discovered Espionage.

1 - Select the target civilization in the Opponents area.

2 - Select a mission type (Diplomatic or Spy).

3 - Select a mission.

4 - Select the target city for the mission (if appropriate).

5 - Select an option in the Operational Costs area.

6 - Click Execute to launch the mission.

Note that if you decide to NOT execute the mission, you can click Cancel or exit the Espionage screen to cancel it.

The following is a list of diplomatic and espionage missions that may be performed (note that most missions become available after you have researched Espionage):

Establish Embassy - Attempts to establish an embassy with the currently selected Civilization.

Plant Spy - This option attempts to plant a spy with the currently selected Civilization.

Steal Technology - This option attempts to Steal a Technology from the currently selected Civilization.

Steal Military Plans - Use a spy to steal military plans of a rival, which reveals the locations of all their military units.

Initiate Propaganda - Initiate propaganda against the city where the spy resides. If successful, the people will revolt and defect to your side.

Expose Enemy Spy - If you suspect a rival has planted a spy in one of your cities you can attempt to expose the intruder.

Investigate City - This